《A Brief Introduction To The Anglo-American Law of
Contract》
讲义
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH AND AMERICAN
CONTRACT LAW
第一章导论
Many students wrongly imagine that the law of contract is difficult in that it will deal with complicated commercial situations. They also think of contracts as complicated written documents only entered into on rare occasions such as accepting the offer of a job, renting or buying a house, or engaging in a major business transaction.
In fact, most of us enter into contracts every day and the vast majority of them are less complicated. Buying a bus or train ticket, a cup of coffee or a book are all example of contracts and we hardly ever bother to record these affairs in writing, negotiate them in detail.
Although it is usually fairly easy to recognize a contract once formed, it is by no means such an easy task to describe in general terms what a contract is. It is usually, perhaps universally, said that a contract is a legally enforceable agreement and that it is formed by the process of “Offer and Acceptance.” It is also said that the agreement must be supported by “consideration” for it is the presence of consideration that makes the agreement enforceable.
The contract law course taught in this semester usually deal wi th the “general principles of contract”. We will not concern with those more advance fields such as contracts of employment, of the sale of goods between business and to consumers, of international sales, of the disposal or retention of intellectual property rights, of shipping, of insurance, and of construction deals. [Aims and Requirements]
This chapter introduces some basic theory in Common Law system on contract law. The section A begins our survey with the definition of contract, which introduces a number of themes including the basis of contract and the conditions for enforcement of promises. Section B presents an overview of some theoretical issues and provides some very basic information that often emerges in class only incidentally and may therefore be missed by some students. Section C concentrates on the development of Anglo-American contract law in the past century. It is useful for the student to understand new characteristics of modern contract law.
[Time Allocation] 4 hour
Please brief the case and provide me with a copy of your brief at the first class.
SECTION A．THE MEANING OF “CONTRACT” AND BASIS OF CONTRACT
第一节合同的定义和合同基础
I. Meaning Of Contract
Purpose and demand
In this certain part of the chapter we must cover the following purpose and demands: the students should master the definition of Contract. They will be familiar with the sources of contract law. The understanding of the differences between England and The USA is also very important.
Main content
I.The Meaning of “Contract”
A contract is a promise, or set of promise, for breach of which the law gives a remedy, or the performance of which the law in some way recognizes as a duty. (Restatement of the Law, Second, Contracts, Section1.)
A contract is defined as an exchange relationship created by oral or written agreement between two or more persons, containing at least one promise, and recognized in law as enforceable.
Briefly speaking, a “contract” is an agreement（a promise or a set of promise）that the law will enforce.
A contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more parties or a set of legal binding promises made by one party or more. (See G.C. Lindsay, Contract, (3 rd, 1992) at 6~7.)
Although this definition will not likely satisfy everyone, it does reflect the essential elements that everyone seems to accept:
II. So there are five essential elements in a contract:
1.An oral or written agreement
Probably, the most important attribute of contract is that is a voluntary, consensual relationship. A contract is created only because the parties, acting with free will and intent to be bound, reach agreement on the essential terms of their relationship. It is the element of agreement that distinguishes contractual obligation from many other kinds of legal duty, such as the obligation to compensate for negligent injury or to pay taxes that arise by operation of law from some act or event, without the need for assent.
Although agreement between the parties is essential to the creation of contract,
the question of what constitutes legally sufficient agreement can be difficult;
the question is discussed in detail later. For the present, it is sufficient to point out that the law does not demand an inquiry into the minds
of the parties to decide whether they had formed an actual intent to
contract. Such an investigation into the actual thoughts and understanding of a party (called subjective intent) would not adequately protect the other party’s reasonable reliance on apparent intent, as portrayed by words and conduct. Also, because the only means of establishing the true state of mind of a person is the testimony of that person, evidence of true intent is likely to be unreliable and colored by self-interest. Therefore, in deciding whether a person agreed to a contract, the law gauges intent objectively. That is, it evaluates the person’s overt acts—words and conduct—to decide whether they reasonably signified an intent to enter the transaction.
The concept of volition must also be approached with caution. Although a contract is a voluntary relationship, this does not mean that a party must be completely free of all pressure and must exercise unfettered free will. It is inevitable and tolerable that a party suffers some degree of compulsion from personal circumstances, desires, and needs, and from external market forces. However, where this pressure becomes too intense and is taken advantage of by the other party, it undermines volition and negates the apparent accent. The definition also indicates that agreement may be oral or written. Under a legal rule called the statute of frauds, certain specified contracts must be recorded in writing and signed to be enforceable. However, unless a contract falls within the statute of frauds, it is fully binding in oral form. It is common for both lay persons and lawyers to use the word “contract”to refer to the document setting out the terms of the agreement that is signed by the parties. Strictly speaking, the document is not the contract, but merely the memorandum or record of the contract. The contract is the legal relationship that arises from the agreement that may or may not be recorded in a written memorial.
2.The involvement of two or more persons
As with tangos, it takes two to contract. This proposition seems so self-evident
that it is hardly worth mentioning. Unlike the tango, however, a contract is not
confined to two participants. There can be as many parties to a contract as the needs of the transaction dictate. In fact, multiparty contracts are common.
3.An exchange relationship
As mentioned earlier, a contract is a relationship. By entering into the agreement, the parties bind themselves to each other for the common purpose of the contract. Some contractual relationships last only a short time and require minimal interaction. For example, a contract for a haircut involves a fairly quick performance by the hairdresser, followed by the fulfillment of the customer’s payment obligation. Other contractual relationships, such as leases or long-term employment or supply contracts, could span many years and require constant dealings between the parties, regulated by detailed
provisions in the agreement.
The essential purpose of the contract relationship is exchange. It lies at the heart of contract. Contract and trade go hand in hand: because trading is a vital and indispensable facet of our society, contract law exists to facilitate it.
In other words, the very essence of contract is the reciprocal relationship in which each party gives up something to get something. These “somethings”are as varied as one could imagine: a goatherd may promise to trade a goat to a miller for a sack of flour; an inventor may trade the rights to her idea for a promise by a manufacturer to develop the idea for mutual profit; a fond uncle may promise his nephew money in exchange for an undertaking not to drink, smoke, and gamble. These situations vary greatly. Some involve tangible things, others intangible rights. Some of the promises have economic value, others do not. Yet their basic format is the same-a bargain has been reached leading to a reciprocal exchange for the betterment (real or perceived) of both parties.
4.At least one promise
As already stressed, contract is a relationship. If two people chat for a few minutes at a reception and then part with no intention of ever seeing each other again. Their encounter would not likely be described as a relationship. So as for contract, instantaneous exchanges, even though consensual, do not constitute contracts. For a contract to exist, there must be a promise-that is, some commitment for the future, some assumptions of liability lasting beyond the instant of agreement. This is because is neither party makes a commitment, there is nothing to enforce and no need for the law of contracts to be concerned with the exchange.
III. A few illustrations
The concept of promise or commitment needs explanation and refinement. A promise is an undertaking to act or refrain from acting in a specified way at some future time. This promise may be made in clear and express words, or it could be implied – that is, inferred from conduct or from the circumstances of the transaction. Furthermore, as the definition indicates, only one promise needs to be made for a contract to come into existence.
Where at the instant of contracting, promises remain outstanding on both sides, the contract is called bilateral. Where, at the instant of contracting, one party has fully performed and all that remains is a promise by the other, the contract is called unilateral.
This sounds rather abstract. A few illustrations may help to make it more concrete.
A. An Instantaneous Exchange: No Contract. Where an exchange is entirely instantaneous, and neither party makes any promises to the other, their exchange is not regarded as a contract. For example, say that while Rocky was walking along the bank of a river he encountered Eddy sitting on the shore next to his kayak. Rocky took $400in cash out of his pocket and
offered to buy the kayak from Eddy “as is” (that is without any warranty from Eddy as to its condition or quality). Eddy accepted the cash, and Rocky climbed into the kayak and paddled off. At this point, there is a simple,
instantaneous exchange without any expectation that Rocky could complain if the kayak was substandard or defective. Each party has fully performed, and no promise has been made. The transaction is not a contract, in contract law, it is described as an executed exchange.
B. A Promissory Exchange: Bilateral Contract.Change the facts in
Illustration 1: Rocky said to Eddy, “I will buy that kayak from you provided that it is watertight. I will give you a check for $400 immediately.”Eddy replied, “It was watertight, I accept. Give me the check and take the kayak.”Even though the parties immediately exchange the check and kayak, the delivery does not end their duty of performance. By giving his undertaking Eddy has made a promise concerning the kayak’s condition, which will allow recourse if it does not meet the agreed standard. Similarly, Rocky’s check is not an immediate payment, but is nothing more than a commitment that his bank will pay the money upon presentation of the check. Thus promises exist on both sides after the moment of agreement, and a bilateral contract exists. This is called an executor exchange.
C. A Promissory Exchange by Implication: Bilateral Contract.In
Illustration 2 Eddy made an express promise that the kayak was watertight. However, it is not always necessary for promises to be stated in express terms. Often, the circumstances of the transaction, the conventions of the marketplace, or the policy of the law imply a promise even in the absence of promissory language in the agreement. Therefore, if it is commonly understood in the market that a seller warrants the fitness of what he sells, a simple exchange, without any express words relating to the kayak’s condition, will give rise to an implied promise that kayak is watertight.
D. A Promise for Performance: Unilateral Contract. Finally, say that
Rocky offered to buy the kayak for $400 and tendered his check. Eddy agreed
to sell it “as is”, making it clear that he made no promise about its condition or quality. Rocky agreed, handed the check to Eddy, and paddled away. Here Eddy’s performance is instantaneous, but Rocky has made a promise of future performance (payment on presentation of the check). When, at the point of contract formation, only one party has a promise outstanding, the contract is unilateral.
5.Legal Recognition of Enforceability
Contracting is often described as an act of private lawmaking by which persons create a kind of personalized “statute”to govern their relationship. One can only envisage contract as private legislation if it has the attribute of any law –recognition and enforcement through the compulsive power of the state, acting through its courts. It is therefore a hallmark of contract that it creates law binding on the parties and confers on them rights and obligations cognizable in law.
[Key Points and Difficult Points]
Essential elements which constitute a contract in Anglo-American contract law. [Questions]
In what circumstances a contract could be seen as enforceable under American contract law?
SECTION B．THE FUNDAMENTAL POLICIES OF CONTRACT LAW
第二节合同法的基本原则
[Main Content]
I. The Fundamental Policies of Contract Law
1.Freedom of contract
The consensual and voluntary nature of contract was stressed in previous section. The power to enter contracts and to formulate the terms of the contractual relationship is regarded in Common Law system as an exercise of individual autonomy-an integral part of personal liberty. The converse is also true: because contracting is an exercise of personal liberty, no one may be bound in contract in the absence of that person’s assent.
While freedom of contract is a fundamental value, the exercise of this freedom by one person cannot be untrammeled. Like other liberties, it is delimited by corresponding rights held by other persons, and by state’s legitimate interest in appropriate regulation. It stands to reason that the absolute exercise of contract freedom by a dominant party will diminish or defeat the exercise of similar freedom by the weaker party. To avoid this happening, the courts or legislature must provide rules that protect the weaker party from being overwhelmed by the free exercise of contractual power by the stronger. Therefore, for example, a large insurance company or an employer may have its freedom of action curtailed so that it cannot impose harsh or one-side terms on an insured or an employee.
Quite apart from the problem of ensuring a proper balance in the contractual freedom of the parties, the state may have an important interest in reaching an accommodation between freedom of contract and other fundamental values. For example, policies prohibiting criminal enterprise, protecting the environment, or forbidding anticompetitive behavior may require restrictions on the right to make certain contracts or on including certain terms in them. It is worthwhile to note that while contract liberty is an important value, it is subject to a variety of limitations that are justified either by the protection of corresponding rights in other persons or by the demands of other public interests.
2.The morality of promise – Pacta Sunt Servanda(有约必守)
The Latin maxim pacta sunt servanda (agreement must be kept) reflects a longstanding moral dimension of contract in contract law –that there is an ethical as well as legal obligation to keep one’s contractual promises. Contracts
should be honored not only because reliability is necessary to foster economic interaction, but simply because it is morally wrong to break them. The role that this basic moral value plays in contract law is subtle.
3.Accountability for conduct and reliance
In determining whether or not a person agreed to a contract or specific contractual terms, the person’s manifested conduct by words or action is given more weight than her testimony about her actual intentions. An emphasis on the objective appearance of assent is important not only because evidentiary considerations but also because one of the fundamental values of contract law is that a person should be held accountable for words or acts reasonable manifesting intent to a contract, and that the other party, acting reasonably, should be entitled to rely on that manifestation of assent.
The principles of accountability and reliance quality the value of voluntariness – volition is not measured by the true and actual state of mind of a party, but by that state of mind as made apparent to the outside world. Even if a person does not really wish to enter a contract, if he behaves as if the contract is desired and intended, that conduct is binding, and evidence of any mental reservation is likely to be disregarded.
The value of protecting reasonable reliance is pervasive in contract law. It has both a specific and general aspect. It is specific in that a person who has entered a contract has the right to rely on the undertakings that have been given. If they are breached, the law must enforce them. It is general because when parties in numerous specific situations feel secure in relying on promises, the expectation arises in society as a whole that contract can be relied on, and that legal recourse is available for breach. This general sense of reliance, sometimes called “security of contracts” or “security of transactions,”is indispensable to economic interaction. If it did not exist, there would be little incentive to make contracts, which would not be worth the paper on which they are written.
In summary, accountability for conduct that induces reasonable reliance is a vital goal of contract law. This is tempered by the consideration that in some cases manifested conduct is induced by illegitimate means, and one who uses such means cannot truly be regarded as having relied on the apparent assent.
4.Fairness
In the contract setting, it must also be evaluated in light of the various goals and policies mentioned in this section. Nevertheless, it would be remiss not to at least draw to your attention that courts do not mechanically apply rules of law. Judges and juries are sensitive to the equities of individual cases and the circumstances of the parties, and where a mechanical application of rules achieves a result that seems to be unjust, there is likely to be some adjustment or even manipulation of the rule to avoid it.
[Key Points and Difficult Points]
The meaning and application of the principle of freedom of contract and fairness. [Questions]
How is the principle of freedom of contract reflected in the American and English contract laws?
SECTION C. Sources of Contract Law
第三节合同法的渊源
Purpose and demand
After reviewing the definition of contract、promise and agreement. In this part of the first article we should get more knowledge of sources of Contract law, esp. the UCC.
Main content
1. England
The Law of England today has three main sources or elements –the common law, statute law, and the law of the European Community.
2. The USA
In most state of USA, most aspects of contract law are governed by case law (i.e., “common law”), rather than by statute. But, contracts are generally governed by common law except to the extent that legislation has been enacted to codify, change, or add it. The Uniform Commercial Code is such a statute.
Briefly speaking, the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) is a collection of modernized, codified, and standardized laws that apply to all commercial transactions with the exception of real property.
The goal of harmonizing state law is important because of the prevalence of commercial transactions that extend beyond one state. For example, goods may be manufactured in State A, warehoused in State B, sold from State C and delivered in State D. The UCC therefore achieved the goal of substantial uniformity in commercial laws and, at the same time, allowed the states the flexibility to meet local circumstances by modifying the UCC's text as enacted in each state.
The only way to create uniform commercial law among the states is to draft a model statute and to persuade the legislature of each state to enact it. This task was undertaken jointly by two very influential national law reform organizations, the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL), and the American Law Institute (ALI).
《合同法》课程教案 一、课程设置 四川工业科技学院法律文秘专业立足于高职院校主要培养高素质技能性法学人才的培养目标，根据这一指导思想，《合同法法》课程定位于高职法律类专业设置的一门必修的实践性很强的专业主干课。通过该课程的系统学习，能够培养学生具有一定的法律专业素质，成为适应基层企事业单位、律师事务所、社会团体法律事务工作需要的高素质技能型人才；更好为人民、为社会主义现代化建设服务。 二、课程总目标 本课程是法律文秘专业的专业主干课程，是一门理论性和实践性相结合的学科，该课程的开设，旨在通过对合同法理论及其实际应用的研究和学习，使学生系统掌握合同法的基本理论、基本制度、基本原则，培养学生运用合同法理论和知识以及有关法律、法规分析和解决经济生活中的实际问题的能力。概言之，教学目标有二： 一是合同法基本知识的掌握； 通过本课程的学习，使学生了解、掌握合同法的基本概念、基本原则、合同的分类、合同订立的相关规定；学习合同的内容和形式、合同的效力、合同的履行、合同的保全与担保以及各种具体的有名合同，能够使学生把理论知识运用于实践生活中去。 二是实践能力的培养。因此，课程教学设计的重点应围绕这两个目标进行。 三、重点、难点章节及内容 合同法是法学理论体系的一个重要学科，具有完整的学科体系。合同法学课程主要包含合同法的原则、合同的分类、合同的订立、合同的内容与形式、合同的效力、合同的履行、合同的保全与担保、合同的变更、合同的解除以及15中有名合同。本课程一共有29章，其中的重点章节有：第一章、第二章、第三章、第四章、第五章、第七章、第八章、第十三章、第十五章、第十七章、第十八章、第十九章。 其中重点难点部分主要在第三章合同的订立以及订立的程序，第五章合同的效力，认真区分合同成立与生效的区别，第六章中双务合同履行中的抗辩权的使用，第七章合同的保全，第八章合同的担保，第十五章买卖合同，第十七章赠与合同。 四、实践环节和内容总体设计
大陆法系和英美法系在合同法的简单比较 在市场经济占主导和经济全球化的今天，各国之间的经济生活联系越来越紧密，对于现在的国际贸易来说，最大的一部分就是合同法，我们要吃透各国的法律才能使我们在国际贸易中不吃亏，在我们学习中我们经常都听说有大陆法系和英法法系但是我们知道它们的主要区别是什么吗？我们要研究两大法系在合同法上的区别我认为首先要知道它们之间的区别才能更深刻的去研究其它问题。 它们的主要区别有四点： 第一，历史渊源不同，英美法系是在广泛吸收日耳曼法的基础上发展的，只接受了罗马法的某些原则和制度，普通法构成其法律制度的基础。大陆法系是在继承罗马法的基础上发展起来的，以罗马法为蓝本演变而成具有基本法性质的民法体系，是构成其法律制度的支柱。 第二，法律结构不同。英美法系国家重视判例，援引先例成为一个重要原则；法官不仅司法，还能立法；虽有制定法但是未编纂大陆类型的法典。大陆法系国家不存在判例法（行政法院除外），重视法典的系统编纂，以成文法典作为基本表现形式，法官只按法律的规定，司法官不能充当立法者。 第三，思维法式不同。英美法系国家的司法实践，一般采用归纳法的法律推理形式，先从大量的案例中归纳出普遍的原则，然而得出结论，因而又被称为归纳法。大陆法系采用的演绎法的推理形式，先从法律原则（大前提）演绎到具体的案由（小前提），再推导出结论，因而又被称为演绎法。 第五，法律范畴不同。英美法系采用有普通法、平衡法之分，民法没有形成统一体系而分别存在财产法、契约法、侵权行为法、婚姻家庭与继承法，实行民商合一，公私法的划分也不严格。大陆法系没有普通法与平衡法的范畴，民法自成统一独立的部门，实行民商分立，公法与私法的划分也较为严格。 现在我们可以研究两大法系的区别了，现在我们选取两大法系的两个国家英国和法国进行比较：首先，大陆国家的合同法认为是一个叫“债法”的更大的法律分支的一部分，合同法产生“合法债务”的可能根据之一，并且扩大到合法债务的各个方面，不仅是怎么产生的，也有怎么履行，当事人怎样能够免除履行，不履行时发生什么结果，所有大陆法国家基本概念就是“债”的概念，而英美法（普通法）国家没有这个概念。大陆法国家没有财产委托的分类和信托的概念，因而大陆法国家的合同概念比英美法国家要广一些。 在英国和法国，合同法的演变有显著的差别。由于合同是交易中必需的文件，因此，普通法赋予合同以约束力。当合同中的“允诺”作为协议的一部分时，它就可以由根据合同而提起“赔偿”之诉所认可。并且，根据英国法，在这案件中，合同存在的实质因素仅仅是对原告在普通法院提起诉讼所依据的允诺提出了对价。与此相反，在法国和其它欧洲大陆法国家，认为合同具有法定约束力的原因是道义上的，而非经济上的。“一个人必须信守诺言”，这是教会确认的规则，教会法学者成功的将其引入法律，基于这一点，协议和无偿的允诺之间就不应当有区别，对价是没有必要的，因为法院将强制执行所有的允诺。在美国的契约法
《英美合同解除制度研究》的知识贡献(一) 英美法系是与大陆法系相并列的西方两大法系之一,契约法与侵权行为法是其中最具特色的部分。正如梁慧星教授在《英美合同解除制度研究》一书的序言中所指出的:英美法系以判例法为其特色,大陆法系以成文法为其特色,随着全球化进程的推进,以及各国联系之加强,两大法系呈现出趋同之势,在民商法领域尤为明显。以英美合同法为例,虽以普通法为其主要渊源,但诸如美国《统一商法典》、英国《货物买卖法》等成文法的地位已不容忽视。特别是近一个世纪以来,美国所进行的法律重述运动,更是将成文法与判例法的融合推向了高潮。在大陆法系的法国、德国以及我国的台湾地区,也日益重视判例的作用。随着当前法律的趋同化趋势进一步加强,法律的进步和发展需要博采众长已是不争的事实,对英美法给予足够的重视并进行深入而细致的研究,显得尤为必要。然而,我国民法学界对英美法的研究却显得相对薄弱。合同解除制度是我国合同法立法当中的重点和难点,无论是在理论界还是实务界,对该问题都存在极大的分歧。近年来,国内不少学者对该制度进行了深入而细致的研究1],但目前不管是从国内法还是比较法角度,并无专着出版。李先波教授的《英美合同解除制度研究》,则是一部系统研究英美合同解除制度的学术著作。该书的出版一方面填补了合同解除制度方面无专着的空白,另一方面为该领域的研究提供了英美法的独特视域。 该书是作者在其提交的博士后研究报告的基础上拓展深化而写就的,系其历时三年多的心血结晶。我国著名民法学家、中国社会科学院法学
所梁慧星研究员为该书泼墨作序,可见其对该书学术价值的肯定。全书深入、全面、系统地研究了英美法上的几种主要的合同解除方法:协议解除、履行解除、受挫解除、违约解除,并在结合我国立法实践的基础上,对我国合同解除制度的立法完善提出了若干真知灼见,可谓我国民法学界研究英美合同法方面的一部力作。 纵观全书,至少有以下几个方面的特色: 1.资料新颖翔实,不乏独到见解。该书作者在进行博士后研究工作期间,曾被国家公派到美国乔治城大学作为高级访问学者进行访学,访学同时作者有意识地收集了大量有关英美合同解除制度方面第一手外文资料,为本书的完成奠定了坚实的基础,这一点从本书的注释中亦可见一斑。本书中大量引用和参考了国外的有关研究成果以及案例,很多资料是全新的、国内所没有的。这些丰富而翔实的资料,为国内外学者对英美合同解除制度进一步研究提供了有益的帮助。在占有丰富和新颖资料基础上,作者对英美合同解除制度进行深入研究,同时提出了一些新观点,形成了自己的独到见解。例如,在损害赔偿计算方面,作者提出应当借鉴英美国家确立的期待利益、信赖利益、无偿得利的具体计算方法,同时还应当考虑受害人的间接损失、非金钱损失和其他因素。这些内容在我国司法实践中尚无具体详细的操作方法,法官或仲裁员的自由裁量权较大,不利于实现损害赔偿之救济目的,作者在这些方面的研究无疑对我国的司法实践有参考借鉴作用。 2.对英美合同解除制度进行了深入细致而系统的研究,视角独特。本书
论英美合同法中的对价制度 摘要：合同在世界各国的社会生活中处于十分重要的地位,尤其在商品经济条件下,如果 没有各种经济合同,社会的经济生活就无法顺利进行,社会的经济秩序亦将难以维持,也正如此,有的学者称现代社会是“合同社会”。正处于改革开放深入发展的我国,了解别国的合同法律制度,尤其是与我国的合同法存在着显著不同的国家的合同法律制度尤为重要。本文就英美合同法律中的对价制度作以分析,以使我国外贸人员与英美法系国家通过合同这种形式交往的时候更好地利用好这一英美合同法特有的法律制度。 关键词：英美合同法；对价制度；合同； 一，对价的概念 我国票据法第十条第二款这样规定：票据的取得，必须给付对价，即应当给付票据双方当事人认可的相对应的代价。在这里我们可以把对价的概念做如下解释：对价就是双方当事人认可的相对应的代价。 对价最初是一个英美法上的概念。按1875年英国高等法院下的定义，对价是指“合同一方得到的某种权利、利益、利润或好处，或是他方当事人克制自己不行使某项权利、遭受某项损失或承担某项义务”。这句话对于不熟悉英美法历史的普通法律人士来说也是如在云里雾里，所以我们就有必要回到英美法的历史环境中去认识它的真面目。 英美合同法是由英国早期的诺言之诉发展而来的。在15和16世纪，英国普通法院在审判实践中确立了一项原则：一项单纯由承诺人对受诺人承担义务的恩惠性或赠予性的诺言不能由受诺人向法院申请强制执行；要使一项承诺具有强制执行的效力，受诺人也必须对承诺人提供某种回报，从而使双方之间存在某种交易。这种由受诺人对承诺人提供的回报就是对价。已经存在对价的情况下，承诺人如果不履行诺言，受诺人有权向法院起诉，并获得适当的救济。 综上所述，我们可以总结出，对价就是相对人作出的某种能使承诺人的承诺对其自身产生拘束力的回报 二：按照英美合同法的要求，对价须具备的条件： 1.对价必须是合法的。 凡是以法律所禁止的东西作为对价的，都属无效。这个很容易理解，例如，贩卖妇女、儿童的合同是无效的，因为在这里当事人把妇女、儿童当作对价来达成合意。而对妇女、儿童买卖是违法的，所以这个对价无效。 2.对价须是等待履行的对价或是已经履行的对价。 英美法把对价分为三种：待履行的对价（Executory Consideration）、已履行的对价（Executed Consideration）和过去的对价（Past Consideration）。当事人已履行了他那部分义务时，其所提供的对价是已履行的对价；若是当事人承诺提供并准备提供的对价，则为待履行的对价；所谓过去的对价是指一方在对方作出允诺之前已经全部履行完毕的对价，其不能作为对方后来作出的这项允诺的对价。英美法有一项原则，“过去的对价就是没有对价”（Past Consideration is no Consideration.）。 在这里我们必须分清已履行对价和过去的对价之间的区别。已履行的对价这种已经作出的行为或是诺言是基于对方的承诺而作出的，具有针对性。比如，甲承诺将卖给乙一台彩电，乙在甲交付彩电之前支付给了一笔甲提出的价款，这时，乙的行为就构成了一项已履行的对价，甲有义务将彩电交于乙。
客户身份识别制度 根据2006年10月全国人民代表大会常务委员会颁布的《中华人民共和国反洗钱法》，我行按照规定建立客户身份识别制度。具体条款如下： 第一条客户身份识别，是指银行业金融机构在与客户建立业务关系或者为客户提供金融服务时，针对具有不同洗钱或恐怖融资风险特征的客户,采取相应措施，确认客户的真实身份,了解和关注客户的职业情况或经营背景、交易目的、交易性质以及资金来源、资金用途、实际收益等。 第二条我行员工履行客户身份识别义务，应当做到： （一）在与客户建立业务关系或者为客户提供规定金额以上的现金汇款、现钞兑换、票据兑付等一次性金融服务时，应当要求客户出示真实有效的身份证件或者其他身份证明文件，进行核对并登记。 （二）客户由他人代理办理业务的，应当同时对代理人和被代理人的身份证件或者其他身份证明文件进行核对并登记。 （三）了解实际控制客户的自然人和交易的实际受益人。 （四）禁止为身份不明的客户提供服务或者与其进行交易，不得为客户开立匿名账户或者假名账户。 （五）在与客户的业务关系存续期间，应当采取持续的身
份识别客户身份识别措施；对先前获得的客户身份资料的真实性、有效性或者完整性有疑问的，应当重新识别客户身份。 （六）保护商业秘密和个人隐私，妥善保存客户身份识别过程中获取的客户身份信息和交易信息。在与任何单位和个人建立业务关系或者要求为其提供一次性金融服务时，都应当提供真实有效的身份证件或者其他身份证明文件。 （七）如需通过第三方识别客户身份的，应当确保第三方已经采取符合本法要求的客户身份识别措施；第三方未采取符合本法要求的客户身份识别措施的，由本行承担未履行客户身份识别义务的责任。 （八）进行客户身份识别，认为必要时，可以向公安、工商行政管理等部门核实客户的有关身份信息。 第三条我行员工在进行客户身份识别时，可以依法采取一种或多种身份识别措施，以合理确信知道客户的真实身份，以及真实的交易性质和目的： （一）核对客户出示的有效身份证件或者其他身份证明文件； （二）要求客户补充其他身份资料或者身份证明文件； （三）回访客户或实地查访； （四）向公安、工商行政管理部门核实； （五）要求客户完整填写业务合同、单据或凭证；
（合同制定方法）浅析英美法系的经济胁迫制度——兼论我国合同法建立经济 胁迫制度
浅析英美法系的经济胁迫制度——兼论我国《合同法》建立经济胁迫制度的必要性 摘要 于《合同法》中,胁迫是影响合同效力的主要因素之壹,各国均普遍认可这壹事实。可是对于胁迫的具体类型，各国的法律规定有别，于英美法系国家，除了人身胁迫、货物胁迫之外，仍有经济胁迫，而我国现行法律体系中无关于此制度的规定。然而于法律实践中,合同壹方当事人经常会利用自己的经济优势对对方进行胁迫，使对方违背其真实的意思表示而和之签订合同。所以,有必要对经济胁迫制度的涵义、历史沿革、认定和后果等进行介绍,进而探讨于我国建立经济胁迫制度的意义。关键词：经济胁迫;英美法系;衡平法各国合同法均把当事人意思表示真实作为合同有效成立的要件。意思表示不真实或有瑕疵,就会影响合同的效力。壹般情况下,胁迫是导致合同可撤销、可变更的因素之壹。胁迫壹般包括人身胁迫、货物胁迫，而英美法系国家把经济胁迫也作为胁迫的壹种类型，作为影响合同效力的原因之壹。 我国1999年修订实施的《合同法》没有经济胁迫的关联规定。然而于现今相对文明及法治的社会中，民商事活动中以暴力胁迫和货物胁迫订约的例子越来越少，当前订约中出现的胁迫绝大多数均是经济胁迫，笔者认为,经济胁迫制度有其独特的功能和价值。本文仅就英美法系中的经济胁迫做壹粗浅探讨。 壹、经济胁迫制度的概念及其历史沿革所谓经济胁迫(EconomicDuress),是指合同的壹方当事人于订立合同时,滥用其优势地位以及相对方的需要，以暴力强迫以外的方式迫使合同相对方接受合同条件,致使受到胁迫的合同另壹方当事人未能按照其真实的意愿决定是否订立合同以及怎样订立合同的情形。从经济损失的角
客户身份识别制度 【客户身份识别基本原则】 ?勤勉尽责 ?遵循“了解你的客户”的原则 ?风险管理(划分风险等级，针对不同风险的客户、业务关系或者交易，采取相应 的措施） ?了解客户及其交易目的和交易性质，了解实际控制客户的自然人和交易的实际 受益人。 【客户身份识别的主要环节】 ?建立关系（初次识别）： 客户是谁？交易目的？ ?关系存续（持续识别、重新识别）： 什么样的交易？ 为什么交易？ 与什么人交易？ 怎样交易? 【对新客户的身份识别】 ?完整的客户身份识别流程应包括：核对、了解、登记、留存四个环节。 ?核对客户的有效身份证件或其他身份证明文件。其中核对的含义：核查、比对。 一是证件与本人进行核对，最直观的、最有效；二是进行联网核查；三是与以往的信息进行比对。 ?了解实际控制客户的自然人和交易的实际受益人。采用合理手段，了解客户是 谁？交易目的？ ?自然人客户的身份基本信息 ?姓名、性别、国籍、职业、住所地或者工作单位地址、联系方式，身份证件或 者身份证明文件的种类、号码和有效期限。客户的住所地与经常居住地不一致 的，登记客户的经常居住地。 ?自然人客户基本信息采集 ?职业： ?住所：与经常居住地不一致的，登记客户的经常居住地。 ?身份证有效期限： 二代身份证背面记载有效期，留存复印件正反面；证件到期时涉及原有客户信息 的更新。 ?对公客户的身份基本信息 ?客户的名称、住所、经营范围、组织机构代码、税务登记证号码；可证明该客 户依法设立或者可依法开展经营、社会活动的执照、证件或者文件的名称、号 码和有效期限；控股股东或者实际控制人、法定代表人、负责人和授权办理业 务人员的姓名、身份证件或者身份证明文件的种类、号码、有效期限。 ?对公客户基本信息采集 ?有效身份证件的种类：既包括可证明该客户依法设立或者可依法开展经营、社
合同法教案 主编赵旭东 责任教师胡静 合同法立法历程 1999年3月15日,九届人大二次会议审议并通过了《中华人民共和国合同法》，至此一部统一的合同法终于“千呼万唤始出来”。 这部法律的出台，在我国立法史上留下可圈可点的一笔。 条文多达428条，借鉴了各国先进立法经验，在我国现有法律当中是罕见的。 合同的定义来源 大陆法系的合同定义来源与罗马法。认为合同是当事人间发生债权债务的合意。 英美法系强调的却是当事人对要约的“允诺”。 在我国古代，“契”与“约”最初是分开用的 “契，刻也。刻识其数也。” －－《释名.释书契》 “约，缠束也，从系，勺生。” －－《说文》 合同法概述 第一节合同的概念和法律特征 第二节合同法的概念和性质 第三节合同法的基本原则 第四节合同的分类 合同的概念 合同是平等主体的自然人、法人及其他组织之间设立、变更、终止民事权利义务关系的协议。合同的法律特征 合同是双方或多方的民事行为 合同是意思表示一致的民事行为 合同以设立、变更或终止民事权利义务关系为内容 合同法的概念 广义：调整合同法律关系的法律规范的总称。 狭义：由立法机关通过严谨的立法技术创制的、具有系统性和科学性的、以合同法命名的基 本法，可以称为合同法典。 调整对象和范围 合同是平等主体之间订立的民事权利义务关系的协议，属于民事法律关系。 合同法只调整民事法律关系中的财产关系。 合同法的本质和地位 本质上是财产流转关系的法律规范 合同法是民法体系中的单行法 其作用主要表现为： 1、保护合同当事人的合法权益 2、维护社会经济秩序 3、促进社会主义现代化建设 合同法的基本原则 平等原则（第三条） 自愿原则（第四条）
比较英美法系与大陆法系的不同——以合同法为例 一、概念与特征比较： 1、英美法的定义与特征：合同是由两个以上当事人之间的具有法律约束力的协议（binding agreement），或者由一个以上的当事人对于他方当事人负有作为或者不作为的义务。承担这项义务的人即为“允诺人”（promisor），享受这项权利的人为“受允诺人”（promisee）. 英美法系实质上将合同定义为一种协议，合同必须要通过双方的协议才能成立，而协议的内容则是双方当事人一致的意思表示。要约一经受要约人承诺，双方之间的协议即告成立，但并不是所有当事人之间的协议都是具有法律效果的合同。对于那些没有法律上约束力的协议，当事人并不能要求强制执行。 2、大陆法系的定义与特征：大陆法系对合同的定义继承了罗马法的传统。将合同定义为“一种协议”。但是，由于立法体例、法律传统和法律用语本身的差异，作为大陆法系两大分支的德国法系和法国法系对合同又有不同的定义和解释。 德国法系国家是以法律行为为概念定义合同的。即合同是发生、变更债的关系的法律行为，合同的本质仍然是一种意思表示的合意。因此，德国法系国家的合同特征可以归纳为：合同是一种发生法律效果的法律行为；是依照两个以上的意思表示所成立的法律行为；是相互对立的两个以上的意思表示达成一致所成立的法律行为。 法国民法上的合同首先是一种合意，即双方当事人意思表示一致的协议；合同是产生债务的根据之一；合同所产生的债务的内容是“负担给付、作为或不作为”。 二、两大法系合同形式的差异比较： 1、大陆法系的合同形式：法国法系的国家和德国法系的国家在合同形式的要求上都规定了一些合同只有采用法定的形式才能得到法律上的承认，都对缺少法定形式的特定规定了无效的法律后果，而且对形式的要求通常是非要式这个一般原则的例外。 2、英美法系的合同形式：英美法系把合同分为签字腊封合同是必须以热定形式订立，毋须对价支持的要式合同。简式合同是必须持有对价支持的合同，简式合同一般是不要合同，当事人可以自由选择用口头形式或者用书面形式订立合同，但是简式合同不等于不要式合同，有一些简式合同必须以书面形式订立，其作用有的是作为合同有效成立的条件，有的是作为证据上的要求。 三、两大法系的合同与诚实信用原则的差异比较： 1、大陆法系合同的诚实信用原则：大陆法中，债务人必须按照社会交易实践中的有关诚实信用和公平交易原则来履行他的义务。解释合同应遵照诚实信用原则并考虑交易习惯。这种规定实际上为合同关系披上了道德的外表，被用来修正民法典中严格的合同自由主义。 2、英美法系合同的诚实信用原则：英美法系的典型代表国家的普通法不认可根据诚实信用原则进行磋商或履行合同是一项一般性义务。合同的订立的本质在于双方当事人的对立的地位，这与诚实信用的概念是不一致的。至于合同的履行，当事人双方显然有资格基于他们所选择的任何理由行驶合同或者于违约的法律所产生的权利。 四、两大法系合同违约形式和违约补救方法的比较 1、关于实际履行的比较：大陆法系奉行优先原则，在德国，即使出现了违反契约义务的情形，债权人也依然享有履行请求权，除非实际上已不可能履行。这种援助实际上是将承诺人答应受诺人的一切好处都给予受诺人，强迫承诺人遵守诺言防止违约。 2、而在英美法系中，实际履行则是指法院颁发一道命令，强制要求契约一方当事人如约履行他的合同义务。当事人不遵守特定履行令的，即构成藐视法庭罪，可能被判处监禁和罚金。所以这种违约补救方式是对人的，而非直接针对当事人的财产。
《A Brief Introduction To The Anglo-American Law of Contract》 讲义 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH AND AMERICAN CONTRACT LAW 第一章导论 Many students wrongly imagine that the law of contract is difficult in that it will deal with complicated commercial situations. They also think of contracts as complicated written documents only entered into on rare occasions such as accepting the offer of a job, renting or buying a house, or engaging in a major business transaction. In fact, most of us enter into contracts every day and the vast majority of them are less complicated. Buying a bus or train ticket, a cup of coffee or a book are all example of contracts and we hardly ever bother to record these affairs in writing, negotiate them in detail. Although it is usually fairly easy to recognize a contract once formed, it is by no means such an easy task to describe in general terms what a contract is. It is usually, perhaps universally, said that a contract is a legally enforceable agreement and that it is formed by the process of “Offer and Acceptance.” It is also said that the agreement must be supported by “consideration” for it is the presence of consideration that makes the agreement enforceable. The contract law course taught in this semester usually deal wi th the “general principles of contract”. We will not concern with those more advance fields such as contracts of employment, of the sale of goods between business and to consumers, of international sales, of the disposal or retention of intellectual property rights, of shipping, of insurance, and of construction deals. [Aims and Requirements] This chapter introduces some basic theory in Common Law system on contract law. The section A begins our survey with the definition of contract, which introduces a number of themes including the basis of contract and the conditions for enforcement of promises. Section B presents an overview of some theoretical issues and provides some very basic information that often emerges in class only incidentally and may therefore be missed by some students. Section C concentrates on the development of Anglo-American contract law in the past century. It is useful for the student to understand new characteristics of modern contract law. [Time Allocation] 4 hour Please brief the case and provide me with a copy of your brief at the first class.
合同法授課教案內容（一） A.合同的分類 一、主合同與從合同。 根據合同間的主從關係，合同分為主合同與從合同。前者指不依賴他合同而獨立存在的合同。後者指以他合同的存在為存在前提的合同。 主合同與從合同的區分，主要意義在於認識二者在效力上的關聯和從合同的從屬性。即從合同不能獨立存在，而必須以主合同的有效成立和生效的前提；主合同轉讓，從合同不能獨立生存；主合同被宣告無效或被撤銷，從合同也失去效力；主合同終止，從合同也隨之終止。 二、單務合同與雙務合同。 根據合同當事人雙方權利、義務的分擔不同，合同分為雙務合同和單務合同。前者指合同當事人雙方相互享有權利，相互負有義務的合同。後者指合同一方當事人只享有權利而不負擔義務，另一方只負擔義務而不享有權利的合同。 三、有償合同與無償合同。 以當事人取得權益是否須付相應代價為標準，合同分為有償合同與無償合同。前者指當事人一方享有合同規定的權益，須向雙方當事人償付相應代價的合同。後者指當事人一方享有合同規定的權益，不必向對方當事人償付相應的對價的合同。 四、諾成性合同與實踐性合同。 根據合同是否可以交付標的物為生效要件，合同分為諾成性合同和實踐性合同。前者指當事人意思表示一致即可成立且生效的合同。後者指除當事人意思表示一致外，須以實際效付標的物才能生效的合同。 五、要式合同與非要式合同。 根據合同的成立是否需要特定的法律形式，合同分為要式合同和非要式合同。前者指須採用特殊法定形式才能成立的合同。後者指法律沒有特別規定，當事人也沒有特別約定需採用特殊形式的合同。 六、束己合同與涉他合同 以訂約人是否僅為設定權利義務為標準，合同可分為束己合同與涉他合同。束己合同，是指嚴格遵循合同相對性原則，當事人為自己設定並承受權利義務，第三人不能向合同當事人主張權利，當事人也不得向第三人主張權利的合同。此為合同的常態。涉他合同，是指突破了合同的相對性原則，合同當事人在合同中為第三人設定了權利或約定了義務的合同，包括為第三人利益的合同和由第三人履行的合同。 束己合同與涉他合同的區別，是二者的締約目的和合同的效力範圍不同。 七、有名合同和無名合同。 根據法律上有無規定一定的名稱，合同可分為有名合同和無名合同。 有名合同是指法律上或者經濟生活習慣上按其類型已確定了一定名稱的合同，又稱典型合同。我國合同法中規定的合同和民法學中研究的合同都是有名合同。無名合同是指有名合同以外的、尚未統一確定一定名稱的合同。無名合同如經法律確認或在形成統一的交易習慣後，可以轉
英美合同法复习之单词索引 按课本出现顺序 Promise 允诺 Remedy 救济 Competent persons 有相应行为能力之当事人 Enforceable 可（由法律）强制执行的Agreement 协议P1 Parties to the contract 合同当事人Offeror 要约人 Offer 要约 Offeree 受要约人 Acceptance 承诺 Assurance 确诺 Manifestation of intent 意思表示Commitment 许诺 Promisor 允诺人 Promisee 受允诺人 Beneficiary 受益人 Consideration 约因 Benefit 利益 Detriment 损害 Advantage 利益 Disadvantage 不利益 Object of the contract 合同标的Statute of Frauds 防止欺诈条例 P2 Formation 合同成立 Enforcement 强制执行Performance 履行 Discharge 解除 Bilateral contract 双务合同Unilateral contract 单务合同 A promise for a promise 以允诺换允诺 A promise for an act 以允诺换行为 P3 Incomplete contract 不完全履行合同Partial performance contract 部分履行合同 Actual contract 真实合同 Express contract 明示合同P4 Implied-in-fact contract 默示合同/事实默示的合同P5 Quasi-contract 准合同/ implied-in-law contract 法律默示的合同 Meeting of minds 合意 Injustice 不公正 Unjust enrichment 不当得利Objective theory of contract 合同客观理论 Intent 意图 Resonably prudent person standard 合理谨慎人的标准 In jest 开玩笑 In anger 生气 In excitement 兴奋状态 Invalid 无效P6 Formal contract 要式合同 Contacts under seal 盖印合同Recognizance 具结 Acknowledge 承认 Negotiable instruments 可转让票据Letters of credit 信用证 Invoice 发票；发货单 Bill of lading 提单 Informal contract 非要式合同/simple contract 简单合同P8 Valid contract 有效合同 V oid contract 无效合同 V oidable contract 可撤销合同Unenforceable contract 不可强制执行的合同 Contractual capacity 订约能力Nondisclosure agreement/NDA 保密协议 Minors 未成年人 Insane persons 精神病者Intoxicated persons 酗酒人 Duress 胁迫 Undue influence 不正当影响 Fraud 欺诈P9 Cases involving mutual mistake 双方都有误解的合同 Contract at will 任意合同 Excuted contract/performed
英美合同法上的“允诺禁反言”原则及其对我国的借鉴 [摘要] 英美法系属判例法，普通法与衡平法是其两大支柱。就合同法而言，英美法的传统合同理论的基石系普通法上之对价理论，随社会变迁，以对价为基础的合同理论时有见肘，甚至造成不公平现象。为弥补传统合同理论之不足，衡平法上发展出“允诺禁反言”原则，完善了英美合同法理论。“允诺禁反言”原则与大陆法系的缔约过失制度有相似之处，但更多的是不同，并有互补之作用。我国主要承袭大陆法系，借鉴英美合同法上的“允诺禁反言”原则实可丰富我国合同法理论，也可在司法实务中贯彻公平正义。 [关键词] 合同法、允诺禁反言、缔约过失责任、借鉴 大凡人们参与私法生活，期能补生活资源之不足，缘此而缔结合同，相互交换、互为买卖，最重者为“重然诺”，以诚信为本。但亦有轻信诺之人，率而废约，致他人未能达其缔约目的，且常有损失。此态样既不利于社会经济之发展，也不利于当事人之保护，亦与公平正义之私法理念相悖。此种情形，在英美合同法上，传统对价理论或有为之束手，因而睿智之法学家创设“允诺禁反言”制度，裨能补对价理论之不足。 一、英美合同法上的“允诺禁反言”原则 传统英美合同理论之基石为对价理论。所谓对价，即“有价值之约因乃由契约当事人各方，为迫使对方实现其行为或履行其诺言作出许诺之行为或牺牲，或只为购买或换取对方许诺而支付之代价者”。[1]简言之，业已成立的合同在生效过程中能够用以支持当事人之间有互为给付义务者，用一句十分通俗的话就是“我给你是为了你给了我的关系”。约因（对价）是英美法系中合同成立的重要要件，无对价（约因）的合同是得不到法律保护的。然而，随着社会和经济的迅速变迁发展，新的社会价值观的形成，对价交换理论对合同范围及合同责任的限制的弊端日益突出。“允诺禁反言”原则正是适时应变、顺应实现实质正义、公平的社会观念发展起来的，由此使长期受对价交换理论排斥的信任、公平等因素重新受到了重视。 所谓“允诺禁反言”（Promissory Estoppel），是英美法系国家的一般契约理论，其基本内涵是“My word is my bond”-言行一致，不得出尔反尔。 “允诺禁反言”原则在英国得以确立也颇费曲折。如前所述，英美法系国家传统的合同理论是：合同成立、变更均须有约因（对价）（consideration），才能产生强制执行之效力。可是实践中大量存在着这样的现象：某人许诺赠与他人物品或答应他人无偿为其做某事，但不久又反悔而使受诺人遭受损失。受诺人受到损失后却无法律依据阻却权利人权利的行使。20世纪40年代以前，英美法系国家的法官解决这一问题的方法，使法律天平平衡的砝码，一是在衡平法上采用允诺禁反言，再是尽其所能寻找有效的约因。这种方法往往产生牵强附会，徒增了人们对法律公正性的怀疑。1877年英国法官卡恩斯勋爵（Lord Cairns）审
内蒙古农村信用社客户身份识别制度 （修订稿） 第一条为保证个人存款实名制的有效实施，依据《反洗钱法》、《金融机构反洗钱规定》、《个人存款账户实名制规定》、《人民币银行结算账户管理办法》等有关规定制定本制度。 第二条客户身份识别制度，也称“了解你的客户”或者“客户尽职调查”，是指金融机构在与客户建立业务关系或与其进行交易时，应当根据法定的有效身份证件，确立客户的真实身份。同时，了解客户的职业情况或经营背景、交易目的、交易性质以及资金来源等。 第三条各旗县合作金融机构在与客户建立业务关系或者为客户提供规定金额以上的现金汇款、现钞兑付等一次性金融服务时，应当要求客户出示真实有效的身份证件或者其他身份证明文件，并核对客户的《机构信用代码证》，登记客户的机构信用代码，留存《机构信用代码证》的复印件或者影印件。 第四条客户由他人代理办理业务的，应当同时对代理人和被代理人的身份证件或者其他证明文件进行核对并登记。 第五条各旗县合作金融机构不得为身份不明的客户提供服务或者与其进行交易，不得为客户开立匿名账户或者假名账户。 第六条各旗县合作金融机构对先前获得的客户身份资料及代码证的真实性、有效性或者完整性有疑问的，应当提示客户更新相应信息，重新识别客户身份。如发现客户出示《机构信用代码证》仍在有效期内，但未按规定提交征信中心或人民银行分支机构确认效力的，应要求客户办理相关效力确认手续。 第七条出现以下情况时应当重新识别客户： (一)客户要求变更姓名或者名称、身份证件或者身份证明文件种类、身份证件号码、注册资本、经营范围、法定代表人或者负责人的。 (二)客户行为或者交易情况出现异常的。
违约责任制度是合同法中一项极其重要的制度，它是合同当事人之间的合意具有法律约束力的保障，不仅可以促使合同当事人双方自觉全面地履行合同义务，起到避免和减少违约行为发生的预防性作用，而且在发生违约时，通过追究违约方的违约责任，使守约方的损失得到补偿，使违约方受到相应的制裁，从而保护合同当事人的合法权益，维护社会经济秩序。我国合同法体现了对违约责任制度的重视，不仅在总则中设专章对违约责任作了一般性规定，而且在总则的其他章节和分则中对违约责任制度的相关问题也作出了具体的规定。综观我国合同法中的违约责任制度，我认为具体有以下主要特点：在尽量吸收以往三部合同法行之有效的规定的基础上，充分借鉴国外的有益经验，体现了我国违约责任制度的稳定性、连续性和发展性；在体现违约责任补偿性的同时，强调实际履行的违约责任承担方式。 （一）合同法中的违约责任制度吸收了以往三部合同法的成功经验 首先，在违约形态方面，《合同法》第107条规定了“不履行合同义务或者履行合同义务不符合约定”两种形态，这承袭了《经济合同法》第29条、《涉外经济合同法》第18条、《技术合同法》第17条的相关规定，符合我国传统立法中两分法观点，即将违约形态划分为不履行和不适当履行。这种划分能够涵盖所有的违约形态，是从中国的实际情况出发，在总结我国立法、司法实践经验的基础上建立的科学的违约形态体系。其次，在归责原则方面，《合同法》第107条、120条确立了严格责任原则。这和《涉外经济合同法》第18条，《技术合同法》第17条的规定是一致的。在严格责任原则下，只要不存在免责事由，违约行为本身就可以使违约方承担责任。因此严格责任更有利于保护守约方的利益，维护合同的严肃性，增强当事人的责任心和法律意识，克服信用危机。在过错责任原则下，只有在不能证明其对违约行为无过错的情况下，才承担违约责任，而过错属主观心理状态，其存在与否的证明和判断，较属于客观事实的违约行为和免责事由更为困难，因此严格责任原则比过错责任原则更为有利于降低诉讼成本。正是由于严格责任原则的以下优点，英美法系在合同的违约救济中采严格责任原则，大陆法系中实行过错责任原则的德国也正在逐步转向严格责任原则，由两大法系的权威学者共同参与拟订的《国际商事合同通则》和《欧洲合同法原则》也都采用严格责任原则，反映了国际上合同法发展的共同趋势。我国合同法采用严格责任应该说是正确的选择。当然，严格责任原则作为我国合同法中违约责任的一项总的归则原则，也不是绝对的，针对某些合同违约的特殊情况，《合同法》分则中也采用了过错责任原则作为例外，如第189、191条的赠与合同、第303条的客运合同、第320条的多式联运合同、第374条的保管合同、第406条的委托合同等。但这些只是一般原则的例外，并不能改变严格责任原则在合同法中的主导地位。 除以上两个方面外，合同法在不可抗力免责、承担违约责任的方式等方面都尽量吸取以往立法的成功经验，体现了法律的继承性和连续性。 （二）违约责任的补偿性和强调实际履行 违约责任的补偿性，是指违约责任旨在补偿守约方因违约行为所造成的损失。《法国民法典》第1142条规定，作为或不作为债务，在债务人不履行的情况下，转变为赔偿损失的责任。由于赔偿损失成为违约责任的主要方式，因而违约责任的补偿性质体现得十分明显。违约责任的补偿性从根本上说是商品交易关系在法律上的内在要求。我国合同法对违约责任的补偿性较之过去三个合同法作出了更为全面和具体的规定，对债权人的保护更为充分。
金融机构客户身份识别和客户身份资料及交易记录保存管理办法(中国人民银行、中国银行业监督管理委员会、中国证券监督管理委员会、中国保险监督管 理委员会令〔2007〕第2号) 根据《中华人民共和国反洗钱法》等法律规定，中国人民银行、中国银行业监督管理委员会、中国证券监督管理委员会和中国保险监督管理委员会制定了《金融机构客户身份识别和客户身份资料及交易记录保存管理办法》，现予发布，自2007年8月1日起施行。 人民银行行长: 周小川 银监会主席:刘明康 证监会主席:尚福林 保监会主席: 吴定富 二〇〇七年六月二十一日 金融机构客户身份识别和客户身份资料及交易记录保存管理办法 第一章总则 第一条为了预防洗钱和恐怖融资活动，规范金融机构客户身份识别、客户身份资料和交易记录保存行为，维护金融秩序，根据《中华人民共和国反洗钱法》等法律、行政法规 的规定，制定本办法。 第二条本办法适用于在中华人民共和国境内依法设立的下列金融机构：（一）政策性银行、商业银行、农村合作银行、城市信用合作社、农村信用合作社。 （二）证券公司、期货公司、基金管理公司。 （三）保险公司、保险资产管理公司。 （四）信托公司、金融资产管理公司、财务公司、金融租赁公司、汽车金融公司、货 币经纪公司。 （五）中国人民银行确定并公布的其他金融机构。 从事汇兑业务、支付清算业务和基金销售业务的机构履行客户身份识别、客户身份资 料和交易记录保存义务适用本办法。 第三条金融机构应当勤勉尽责，建立健全和执行客户身份识别制度，遵循“了解你的客户”的原则，针对具有不同洗钱或者恐怖融资风险特征的客户、业务关系或者交易，采取相应的措施，了解客户及其交易目的和交易性质，了解实际控制客户的自然人和交易的实际 受益人。