Chapter 4 Form Word to TextSyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituen ts are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:句法关系a. Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of one aspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontal relation or chain relat ionb. Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of word subst itutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same st ructure. It refers to groups of more than one word which may be joi ntly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set . It called associative relations, vertical relations, choice relations.c. Relation of cooccurrence共现关系2．Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called imme diate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysi s or IC analysis.3. Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent. Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4. Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction. (and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic unit s so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5. Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic fo rm and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. a. Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. It incl udes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics in clude word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb. Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c. Object include direct object and indirect object6. Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense and refers to the defining properties of these general units. a. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes di splaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b. Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine, neuter.c. Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify the syntacti c relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived. Agreement (concord)7. Phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that expres s a compete thought.8. Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embedding one relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in t he sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic. Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjuncti on, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substituti on)9. Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a senten ce, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively s mall number of classes.Wordlevel categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and min or lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary, conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain wo rd category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, comple ment10. Phrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arr angement of elements that make up a phrase. NP----(Det) N (PP)… VP---(Qual) V (NP)… AP---(Deg) A (PP)… PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement) The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11. Phrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles：help make more precise the meaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are thems elves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. The XP rul es (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed com plementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the constr uction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matr ix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads. The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。