语言学概论Chapter: Invitation to linguistics一、language1、DefinitionLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于交际的一套有声符号系统。

It evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contents. (human specific)2、The history（origin）(1)The bow-wow theory 模仿说（imitation）People imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment. Onomatopoeic words(拟声词)(2)The pooh-pooh theory本能说（instinct）In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they Utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy .Interjections like oh ,ah ai yo.(3)The yo-he-ho theory号子说（rhythmic grunts）As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts(咕哝) which gradually developed into chants and then into languages.(4)The divine-origin theory神授说（creation）(5)The invention theory 人造说（invention）(6)The evolutionary theory进化说（evolution）3、design features of language语言的普遍特征●language distinguishes human beings form animals in that it is far more sophisticatedthan any animals communication system.Eg.(philosopher Bertrand Russell ) no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannottell you that his parents were poor but honest.再会叫的狗，他也不会说出他的父母很穷但是很务实的话来●design features(1)Arbitrariness任意性There is no logical connection between sounds and meaning.(Saussure first refersto the fact that the forms of a linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning.) We do not know why the book is called the book.(2)Duality二元性It means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements the secondary level and each of the twolevel has its own principles of organization.(3)Creativity创造性it means language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness(递归性)。

Language is creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endlesssentence.(4)Displacement移位性:Displacement is that language can refer to the contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker.(5)Culture transmission文化传递性:Animals call systems are genetically transmitted. Human languages are culturallytransmitted.4、the function of language语言的功能（1）Informative信息功能：The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and peopleoften use it to communicate new information.（2）interpersonal function人际功能：It is the most important sociological use of language. The interpersonal functionmeans people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.（3）performative 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status ofpersons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing ofchildren, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.（4）Emotive function感情功能The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is socrucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone orsomething.（5）phatic communion寒暄功能The phatic communion means the social interaction of language. such ritualexchanges as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortablerelationship between people without any factual content.（6）recreational function娱乐功能The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it,such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.（7）metalingual function元语言功能The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. Ican use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “theword book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.二、linguistic1、definitionIt is the systematic investigation of the common features of all natural human languages.2、main branches of linguistic(1)Phonetics语音学Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatoryphonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.从自然属性研究人类语音(2)Phonology音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing ofspeech sounds and the shape of syllables.研究语音结构、分布和排序的规则以及音节的形状。

(3)Morphology形态学Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.研究单词内部组成(4) Syntax句法学Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. 研究组词造句的规则(5)Semantics语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.语言的意义(6)Pragmatics语用学Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.研究语言在环境中的意义3、Macrolinguistics宏观语言学Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.（1）Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing andproducing utterances and in language acquisition for example.（2）Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language andsociety, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.（3）Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in acommunity.（4）Computational linguistics计算机语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use ofcomputers to process or produce human language.4、the principles of linguistic study语言学研究的规则exhaustiveness objectivity consistency economy5、Important distinctions in linguistics几对重要的区别性概念（1）Descriptive vs. prescriptive规定性研究与描述性研究（2）Synchronic vs. diachronic共时与历时（3）Langue & parole语言与言语（4）Competence and performance语言能力与语言应用Chapter two: speech sounds(two major areas of study: phonetics and phonology)Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.Phonetics语音学1、definition:Phonetics is the study of production, transmission, perception .description and classification transcription(标记) of speech sounds.2、three branches of phonetics(1)Articulatory phonetics (physiological phonetics生理语言学) 发音语言学the study of the production of speech sounds(2)Acoustic phonetics（physical phonetics物理语言学）声学语言学the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech(3)Auditory phonetics （psychological phonetics心理语言学）听觉语言学the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.3、speech sounds: are sounds that convey meaningAre sounds that are systematically used in human linguisticcommunication.4、speech organs发音器官Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.【the lungs 肺the trachea or windpipe 气管the throat喉（larynx 喉pharynx咽vocal folds\cords声带）the nose鼻the mouth口】-----vocal tract声道The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts:the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities （pharynx the nasal cavities the oral cavities）.5、the IPA chart国际音标图=International Phonetic AlphabetFirst version: August 1888 last version : 2005Main principles:● a separate letter for each distinctive sound一音一符●The same symbol should be used for that sound in anylanguage in which it appears.同音同符●The alphabet was to consist of as many roman alphabet lettersas possible.●Using new letters and diacritics only when absolutelynecessary.变音符号6、classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类（1）vocal & consonant (according to the articulatory characteristics)(the obstruction of airstream气流受阻与否)Vocal (元音)：sounds produced without the obstruction of airstream.Consonant（辅音）:sounds produced with the obstruction of airstream.（2）voiceless sound & voiced sound(the vibration of vocal cord声带的振动与否)Voiceless sound（清音）：when the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass througheasily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless.Consonant[p s t f k]Voiced sound(浊音)：when the vocal cords are close together, the airstream causesthem to vibrate against each other and the reluctant soundis said to be voiced. Consonants[b z d v g]7、classification of consonants 辅音的分类[t]: voiceless stop alveolar [l ]:voiced alveolar approximant⏹Vocal glides滑音---monophthongs [i] and diphthongs[ei]单元音和双元音⏹The height of the tongue raising----high mid low⏹The position of the highest part of the tongue-----front central back⏹The length of tenseness of the vocal----long(tense) short(lax)⏹Lip rounding---rounded unrounded 圆唇非圆唇E.g.[i:] high front tense unrounded vocal[u] high back lax rounded vocal[e]倒着写mid central lax unrounded vocal9、cardinal vocals are a set of arbitrary reference points established in thedescription of vocals10、the vocals of RP :the standard pronunciation of southern British English ,known asRP----received English11、coarticulation协同发音The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation逆协同发音: If the sound becomes more like the followingsound, as in the case of lamp, it is known asanticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation顺协同发音: If the sound displays the influence of thepreceding sound, as in the case of map, it isperseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.12、phonetic transcription语音标记（标音法）It is method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way以系统一致的方式记录语音二、phonology音系学1、definitionIt is the study of sound patterns in a given language.(language-specific)phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.it deals with the sound system of a languageby treating phoneme as the point of departure.2、phone音素[] phoneme 音位/ / allophone音位变体Speech sound------phonePhoneme (Distinctive sound) : A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that cansignal a difference in meaning.Allophone (Non-distinctive):Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called itsallophones.3、Phonological processes音位过程（1）phonological rules音系学规则Assimilation同化refers to the process or result of one sound taking on somecharacteristics of a neighboring sound.（2）Distinctive features区别性特征4、suprasegmentals超音段特征Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.Four principles:⏹Syllables音节：onset节前+ rhyme 韵基（peak or nucleus节峰+code节尾）⏹Stress重音:refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.⏹Tone音调: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates ofvibration of the vocal cords.⏹Intonation语调:Chapter there: form Morpheme to phrase(morpheme and morphology)The grammatical hierarchy of a language:clause complexClauseWord group/phraseWordmorpheme一、morpheme词素，语素------------1、definitionMorpheme is the smallest unit of language In regard to the relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smallerunits without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.Morphology形态学studies the internal structure of words and word information rules.Morphemes and word formation process语素和形成过程Two fields------inflectional morphology曲折形态学（研究语法的曲折变化及表达）Derivational morphology派生形态学（研究构词法及词义表达）2、Types of Morphemes(1).Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和粘合词素（In terms of their capacity of occurring alone)Free morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitutewords by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are calledbound morphemes.(2). Root词根, affix 词缀and stem词干● A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed withoutdestroying the meaning. (can be free or bound)●An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used onlywhen added to another morpheme. ( it is a bound morpheme) ----prefixsuffix infix● A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectionalaffix can be added.(3).Inflectional affix屈折变化（反映语法关系）：Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixesderivational affix派生变化（反映词性关系）：Derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes.it often changes the lexical meaninge.g. Friendships --------stem(friend+ship)friend---root ship---inflectional suffix s----derivational suffix3. morpheme and allomorph语素变体An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. (map---maps)4. morphological change形态学的变化Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.The plural forms of nouns have also changed.二、word词1、definition定义Word is a unit of linguistic expression that has universal intuitive recognition by narrative speakers.2、lexical items词条refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms.( Boy and boys are one word, but are two lexical items. )3、Identification of words词的识别⏹Stability: chairman-----manchair unacceptable⏹Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word evenwhen there are several parts in a word. * dis appoint ment.⏹ A minimum free form4、classification of words词的分类⏹Variable and invariable words变化词和非变化词Variable words----they have inflective changes. Verb, noun and adjectiveInvariable words----they do not have inflective endings. Conjunction and preposition⏹Grammatical words and lexical words 虚词和实词Grammatical word----they serve to link together different content parts. Determiner ,pronoun and prepositionLexical words-----they carry the main content of a language. Nouns ,verbs andadjectives⏹Closed-class words and open-class words封闭词类和开放词类Open-class words------it is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.noun, verb , adjective and adverbClosed-class words------it is one whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronoun,preposition, conjunction and article⏹Word class（=parts of speech）Main class---noun pronoun adjective verb adverb preposition conjunction interjection and article numeralParticles小品词----infinitive maker to not do upAuxiliaries助动词Pre-form代形词-----so did thereDeterminers限定词三、word formation构词法-------1、the inflectional way of formationInflection indicates grammatical relation by adding inflectional affixes, which do not change the grammatical class of stems to which they are attached to.Table—tables talk---talks talked talking boy---boy’s2、the derivational way of formationDerivation(word formation), in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed.⏹Derivation派生词It shows a relationship between roots and affixes.⏹compound合成词definition-----it refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, two kinds------the endocentric compound向心复合词（偏正结构）seif-controlthe exocentric compound离心复合词（动宾结构）cutthroat⏹conversion转换法=zero derivation3、lexical change词汇变化5、Phonological change音素变化⏹Loss laboratory⏹Addition⏹Metathesis调整⏹Assimilation同化⏹Dissimilation异化6、Morpho-syntactical change语法变化⏹.Morphological change形态变化The form of inflectional affixes may also change.⏹Syntactical change句法变化There are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words7、Semantic change语义变化⏹Broadening⏹Narrowing⏹Meaning shift⏹Class shift⏹Folk etymology8、Orthographic change拼写变化Chapter 4 from word to text一、syntax句法学1、definition定义It is the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures and the study of the rules governing sentence formation.2、syntactic relations句法关系●Positional relation(word order)位置关系==horizontal relations chain relationsSyntagmatic relation横组合关系It refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. F.de saussureEg. The boy kicked the ball.(the ball kicked the boy?)---------a sentence must meet syntactic condition and semantic condition●Relation of substitutability替换关系（Saussure）associative relations (Hjemslev)paradigmatic relations纵聚合关系Vertical relations垂直关系choice relations选择关系It refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically insentences with the same structure.同一类型的词所具备的的句法关系E.g. The -------------(man/boy/girl) smiles●Relation of co-occurrence共现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, theoccurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a determiner or aparticular part of a sentence.Eg (preceded by) NP (followed by)A pretty girl smiles------ a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective and followedby a verbal phrase.3、grammatical construction and its constituents语法结构与成分（1）、Grammatical constructionOn the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external外部的句子短语）and internal properties（内部的主谓成份）.（2）Immediate constituents(IC analysis)直接成份分析Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. The IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets（圆括号）or shown with a tree diagram树形图法）. E.g.Poor John ran away. →(1) ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)).(2)Its advantages: the clear demonstration of the internal structure of a construction and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.Eg.The sentence leave the book on the shelve may mean put it there or do not touch it.The son of pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of pharaoh’s son法老儿子的女儿是法老的孙女（3）、endocentric and exocentric constructionThe two main type of analyzing the syntactic constructionsDepends on their distribution and the relation between their constituents⏹Endocentric construction 向心结构An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionallyequivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents,which serves as the center, or head, of the whole.Noun phrases verb phrases adjective phrasesVery late(very---this constituent is subordinate to the Head—late)These two oldest stone bridgesWill be leavingtwo main types--------(depends on the relation between constituents)----coordination并列：and or (recursiveness)----subordination从属: modifier two boys swimming in the lake⏹Exocentric construction离心结构The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a constructionwhose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of itsconstituents.Basic construction the boy smiledprepositional phrase he hid behind the doorpredicate(verb+object)construction he kicked the ball.connective(be+complement)construction John seemed angry4、syntactic function语法功能it shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.⏹Subject主：it refers to one of the nouns in the nominative caseTo be the doer of the actionGrammatical subject and logical subject⏹Predicate谓It refers to a major constituent of sentence in a binary analysis inwhich all obligatory constituents other than the subject wereconsidered together. It usually expresses actions, processes, and statesthat relate to the subject.⏹Object宾It refers to the receiver or goal of an anction.Direct object and indirect objectCase labels: the accusative case for direct object主格The dative case for indirect object与格⏹Predicators谓语结构⏹Modifiers修饰语⏹Complements补语5、category语法范畴it refers to the classes and functions in its narrow sense. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units.⏹number数it is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displayingsuch contrasts as singular and plural.--------nouns⏹gender性it displays contrasts as masculine（男性）feminine （女性）and neuter（中性）,animate⏹case格the case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify thesyntactic relationship between words in a sentence.Nominative(主格), accusative宾格genitive所有格dative与格（介词）How to realize a combination of preposition and noun?---------inflection : teacher—teacher’s---------following a preposition: with/to a man--------word order: John kicked Peter; Peter kicked John⏹agreement一致关系subject and predicate主谓一致determiner and noun修饰词与被修饰词之间⏹government6、phrase, clause and sentence结构类型7、Recursiveness 递归性--------to extend sentences⏹Conjoining连接（并列）⏹Embedding嵌入（附和）8、beyond the sentence(=text linguistic and discourse analysis)篇章结构⏹sentential connection⏹cohesion。