Definition of translation1) 翻译是跨语言、跨文化、跨社会(cross-social)的交际活动。
2) 翻译是将一种语言文化承载的意义转换到另一种语言文化中的跨语言，跨文化的交际活动。
Translation is a representation or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language.3)翻译的本质是释义,是意义的转换. meaning-based汉译英是译者将作者为汉语读者所写的汉语文本转换成功能相似、语义相符、供英文读者阅读的英语文本的活动。
Classification of translation1)Translation—— Intralingual translation(语内翻译)；Interlingualtranslation(语际翻译)；Intersemiotic translation(符际翻译)2) Interlingual translation——Oral (interpretation) : consecutive(交替传译); simultaneous(同声传译)3) Written: whole text literature; pragmatic excerpt; selective; adapted; rewriting; MAT & MTCriteria of translationCriteria of translation is the plumb-line for measuring the quality of a translation and the goal for a translator to strive for.1) Source-language–oriented principle(以译出语为取向的原则)Characteristics: pay extreme attention to the form of the source text, always adopts a word-for-word / line-for-line translation or transliteration.•他是只纸老虎He is a paper tiger.•这事让他丢脸This makes him lose face.2) Target-language-oriented principle (以译入语为取向的原则) Liberal translation: using large number of domestication / adaptationfor the reader’s sake. This is done at the cost of the loss or damage of the original image sometimes.•What is done is done. 木已成舟•Kicking a man when he is down. 打落水狗/落井下石•三个臭皮匠,合成一个诸葛亮Two heads are better than one.3)Author-and-reader-oriented principle (以作者和读者为取向的原则) Characteristics: take both the author and the reader into consideration, and strive to be faithful and smooth at the same time.•繁华也罢，贫穷也罢，丈夫和妻子携手一生，情深意长。
•For richer or for poorer, the husband and the wife are a loving couple for life.4)Socio-semiotics-oriented principle (以社会符号学为取向的原则) Characteristics: the translator should take into consideration the meaning and function conveyed by all kinds of language symbols included.•符号学的翻译原则：在保证特定上下文中最重要的意义优先传译的前提下，尽可能多地传递原语信息的多重意义，以争取原文和译文最大限度的等值。
18世纪英国爱丁堡大学教授，翻译理论家泰特勒(Alexander F. Tytler)提出的三条翻译基本原理：•1. A translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. (译文应该完全传达原文的思想)•2. The style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original. (译文的风格与笔调应与原文的一致)•3. A translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (译文应像原文一样流畅)•玄奘: 既须求真又须喻俗•严复: (《天演论》卷首的《译例言》) “信、达、雅”(faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)•“译事三难：信，达，雅。
求其信已大难矣，顾信矣不达，虽择犹不择也，则达尚焉A)Designative/conceptual meaning (指称意义):The relationship between the language symbol and the objective world it refers to•flower（花）•He can play football. (他会踢球)B)Linguistic meaning (言内意义):The relationship between language symbols in the level of phonetics, word syntactic and discourse.•The senator picked up his hat and courage.参议员捡起了帽子，鼓起了勇气．(一语双叙)•Two ghosts walked into a bar and asked the bar tender, “Do you serve spirits?”C) Pragmatic meaning (语用意义)：It refers to the relationship between language symbols and its user, including indexical meaning(表征意义), expressive meaning(表情意义), social meaning(社会意义), imperative meaning(祈使意义), associative meaning(联想意义).Leech(1974: 10-26)意义七分说1. 概念意义(conceptual meaning) dictionary meaning2. 主题意义(thematic meaning) word order, emphasis…3. 联想意义(associative meaning) man, woman4. 含蓄意义(connotative meaning) 小姐5. 文体意义(stylistic meaning) social environment dialect,6. 情感意义(affective meaning) emotion7. 折射意义(reflected meaning) taboo, euphemism8. 搭配意义(collocative meaning) good day, good job对语言具备的功能,翻译家和语言学家的看法基本一致,只是划分的类别出有粗细之分,综合各家之见,(陈宏薇将之)分为:1. 信息功能(informative function)e.g. Gold melts at 300 degrees Fahrenheit.2. 表情功能(expressive function)e.g. I’m extremely sorry about…3. 人际/寒暄功能(interpersonal / phatic function)e.g. How are you?Thank you for being with us! Good night!4. 呼唤/祈使功能(vocative function)e.g. Come here!5. 美感功能(aesthetic function)e.g. My love’s a red rose.6. 认知功能(cognitive function) *man has to use language to think , during the process, the language is performing the ~7. 元语言功能(metalingual function)e.g. Chinese is a tonal language.汉译英操作步骤1、划分逻辑层次A．尽量把一个逻辑层次翻译成一个句子B．当逻辑层次较多，无法翻译成一个句子时，要注意句子与句子间的关联2、确定每一个句子的主干3、在主语谓语的基础上添加修饰成分4、最后进行全文检查先找到主语再找到与主语对应的谓语动词，然后再进行修饰小知识：People是与自然对应的，而human being是与动物对应的。