(2) Democracy and Council: In 508 B.C., Cleisthenes (克利斯提尼，他将索伦的立法改革制定成法律文件，通 常被认为是雅典民主政治的创建者) instituted a new political organization whereby the citizens would take a more careful and more direct role in running the city-state. He called this new political organization “demokratia”, or democracy----rule by the entire body of citizens. He created a Council of Five Hundred which planned the business of the public assemblies.
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1.2 The social and political organizations of Ancient Greece:
(1) Polis or City-state: In 508 B.C., the city of Athens became one of the first polis, or one of the first city-states in ancient times.
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• 柏拉图的著作中很多地方都表达了对修辞的贬斥。在《高尔吉亚篇》中，苏 格拉底声称，修辞“发明的是这样一种劝服方式：它只制造对正义与非正义 的看法，却对如何认识它们毫无教益”（Plato：455a）；修辞家“不需要了 解事物的真实面目，他只需找到某种方式让那些无知的人相信他比真正有 知识的人更有知识就行了”（459b）。因此，修辞与真理无关，根本不关心 真理，甚至带有明显的欺骗意味。
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/NewInfor/html/30370.htm • 拉斐尔最著名的壁画是为梵蒂冈宫绘制的《雅典学院》。这幅巨型壁画把古希腊以来
的５０多个著名的哲学家和思想家聚于一堂，包括柏拉图、亚里士多德、苏格拉底、 毕达哥拉斯等，以此歌颂人类对智慧和真理的追求，Байду номын сангаас美人类的创造力。
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1. Classical rhetoric (5th B.C – 5th A.D.)
In the ancient times, rhetoric evolved as an important art, one that provided the orator with the forms, means, and strategies for persuading an audience of the correctness of the orator's arguments. Rhetoric originates from the ancient Greece. It provides two necessary conditions for the classical rhetoric.
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1.4 Some Ancient Greek Rhetoricians and their theory
(1). Corax (科拉克斯)
Corax of Syracuse and his students Tisias(蒂西亚斯，有名的捉刀人，专 门为诉讼者撰写诉状) were the first rhetoricians in history. His theory: the first is a theory of how arguments should be developed from probabilities; the second is their first concept of organization of a message. According to Corax, legal arguments should consist of four parts: introductory, explanation, argumentation and conclusion. (Corax 将法律演说分成四个部分：前言，解释，论辩和结论。)
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(3). Aristotle (亚里士多德) and his theory about rhetoric
Aristotle, Plato's student (384-322 BC) famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today.
It was the Council that provided people a place of public speaking.
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1.3 Sophists and their practices of rhetoric
Out of growing demand for education in the 5th century B.B., Greece called into existence a class of teachers known as sophists. Sophist were a professional class rather than a school, and as such they were scattered over Greece and exhibited professional rivalries.
The sophists undertook to provide a stock of arguments on any subject, or to prove any position. They boasted of their ability to make the worse appear the better reason, to prove that black is white. One representative of them was Gorgias. “Man is the measure of all things.”人类是衡量所有事物的标准。
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The concept of rhetoric in general
Along with grammar and logic or dialectic, rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric normally explains the three arts of using language as a means to persuade (logos, pathos, and ethos), as well as the five canons of Rhetoric: memory, invention, delivery, style, and arrangement. From ancient Greece to the late 19th Century, it was a central part of Western education, filling the need to train public speakers and writers to move audiences to action with arguments.
• 然而，柏拉图对修辞的看法并非一成不变。海德格尔在1924-1925年讲授 《智者篇》时提出，柏拉图的修辞观念有一个演变的过程，其轨迹可以通过 比较三篇对话勾勒出来（Brogan：3-15）。《高尔吉亚篇》代表了早期柏拉 图全盘否定修辞的态度；海德格尔认为，在《智者篇》中，柏拉图的态度有 了重大变化，转而相信修辞对“不在”（non-being）或者说“存在”之外的 领域的关注应当在哲学中占据一席之地，辩证（dialectic）能够克服修辞的 欺骗倾向，使之为哲学服务；《斐德若篇》(Phaedrus)则是发生这一转变的 关 键 场 所 。 在 这 篇 对 话 中 ， 柏 拉 图 着 重 探 讨 了 真 理 （ aletheia ） 与 语 言 （logos）的关系。
English Rhetoric
Chapter Two Brief History of Western Rhetoric
By Song Pingfeng
Contents of This Chapter
• 1. Classical rhetoric • 2. Rhetoric in the Middle Ages • 3. Rhetoric in the Renaissance • 4. New Classic Rhetoric • 5. Contemporary Rhetoric
(2) Great thinkers/ scholars: There are a lot of great thinkers/ scholars in the ancient Greece, such as Socrates(苏格拉底), Plato(柏拉图), and Aristotle(亚里士多德). Their great Words and thoughts are still taught in universities to this day. Most of them are great rhetoricians.
1.1 Necessary conditions of classical rhetoric
(1) Greek Democracy : Democracy provides a necessary condition for the birth of classical rhetoric. The ancient Greeks are a unique people. They believed that individuals should be free as long as they acted within the laws of Greece. This allowed them the opportunity to excel any direction they chose. Individuality was the basis of their society. The ability to strive for excellence was what Athenians dearly believed in.