China and India's State-Owned Reinsurers Adopt Divergent Strategies
February 12, 2012
The state-owned reinsurers of China and India have traveled different paths to expansion. With its recent investment in a Lloyd's syndicate, China Reinsurance Group is mapping an international course that leads to Europe, the Americas and Africa.
In the year ahead, market observers expect the Chinese reinsurer to be more competitive and to "look outward" more than its Indian counterpart, with sufficient capital reserves and regulatory supports following its first overseas strategic partnership.
China Reinsurance (Group) Corp. started operating a special-purpose Lloyd's syndicate this year by forming a strategic partnership with U.K.-based Catlin Group Ltd. to write reinsurance cover for an existing Catlin syndicate. The Chinese state-owned reinsurer earlier said it and Catlin would provide capital for Syndicate 2088, which will have a stamp capacity of about 50 million pounds (US$78.7 million).
"As the biggest reinsurance company in China, China Re's strategy is to grow both in the home market and abroad, and to have a greater involvement in international markets," said Chairman Peiyu Li. Setting up Syndicate 2088 and the alliance with Catlin will be a "milestone" in China Re's international strategy, while the new venture will help the reinsurer to gain a better knowledge of Lloyd's and benefit from its worldwide network (Best's News Service, Nov. 8, 2011).
It will also increase the company's experience of international reinsurance operations and management and help build a foundation for China Re to grow into an important player in the world reinsurance market, said Li. The company intends to continue its "internationalization" growth strategy by gradually setting up overseas representative offices and branches, and seeks to become a medium-size international reinsurer by 2015 (Best's News Service, Aug. 9, 2011).
China Re's plan is to "focus on Asian market growth, with steady business participation in Europe and America, while gradually developing emerging markets like Latin America and Africa by leveraging on its strong capital base and positive international credit ratings," Li said.
Currently, about two-thirds of China Re's international business is generated from traditional Asian markets, while the remaining one-third comes from mature markets like Europe and America. This compares with other regional reinsurers, such as Korean Re's business ratios of 43% from Asia and 23% from Europe and America; as well as Japan-based Toa Re's 24% from Asia and 74% from Europe and America, noted the Chinese reinsurer.
To further expand in the international market, Li said China Re can either increase the ceding of part of its own reinsurance business to foreign reinsurers, or underwrite part of the ceded reinsurance business from overseas reinsurers in addition to establishing its own overseas branches or subsidiaries, or to expand through mergers and acquisitions.
Different from relying on a foreign partner to tap further into the global market, India's state-owned reinsurer -- General Insurance Corporation of India -- entered the overseas market earlier than China Re by opening its own branch offices in London, Moscow, and most recently, Malaysia. It has also developed as a reinsurance solutions partner for the Afro-Asian region, and operated reinsurance programs in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation countries, Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Africa.
During the fiscal year ending March 31, 2011, GIC Re reported year-on-year premium growth of 20% to 116.81 billion rupees (US$2.29 billion). Among the total, foreign business accounted for approximately 40.3%, down from 44.7% for the previous year, according to its annual report.
In 2010, China Re noted premium income of less than 1.5 billion yuan (US$238 million) from overseas ceded reinsurance business, accounting for 6% of the group's total. Its premium income generated from reinsurance and insurance business during the year totaled 38.13 billion yuan, including 13.82 billion yuan from direct insurance and 24.31 billion yuan from reinsurance. The group had operating income of $38.8 billion in 2010, with total assets and pretax profits of 99.5 billion yuan and 3.06 billion, respectively.
When focused on the primary insurance market, China and India are both growth markets, while the Chinese players again are better positioned for global growth, as limited local insurance business size and smaller domestic market base have curbed the Indian companies' expansion ambitions.
"The Indian insurance market itself is still way under-penetrated, more so than China, and there is still huge room for growth," said Sharon Khor, a Hong Kong-based partner and head of insurance for greater China at Accenture, an international consultant.
"Unlike China, the number of India's domestic insurers is still rather small, which is dominated by one mega government-owned insurer. Thus the probability of any local insurer in India looking outward is extremely low," noted Khor, who said Indian insurers and the state-owned reinsurer "will likely focus on their domestic market, instead of overseas expansion."
Low insurance penetration, a vast population and rapid economic development, however, would continue to provide a largely untapped potential to be explored in India, such as traditional property, engineering and marine classes, liability, oil and energy, aviation, health and nuclear power, GIC Re's chairman and managing director Yogesh Lohiya said earlier (Best's News Service, June 29, 2010).
Given the economic situation and the expectation of an insurance growth slowdown, particularly in 2012, Khor said Chinese insurers "will continue to stay focused on their core business in China in the near term," in addition to finding ways to sustain the growth momentum and improve operational productivity and efficiency.
The domestic Chinese market still has growth opportunities, which means overseas expansion is "less compelling" where the markets may be more saturated and challenging, especially in the West. "I will not preclude the possibility of Chinese insurers investing in other emerging or developing markets, for example, in Southeast Asia and Africa, or even taking up a minority stake in a foreign financial institution entity in a matured market," said Khor. The China Insurance Regulatory Commission said Chinese insurance companies have steadily implemented a "going global" strategy in the past decade since China joined the World Trade Organization, which has helped them enhance their domestic and international competitiveness.
The Beijing-based regulator expects the global financial environment will be positive in the mid to long term, and the domestic health insurance and pension markets will provide more opportunities to foreign insurers (Best's News Service, Dec. 20, 2011).
Eight Chinese insurers have set up 27 operating units overseas, while six domestic insurers have established eight representative offices overseas. China Re was jointly founded by the Ministry of Finance of China and Central Huijin Investment Corp. with 15.09% and 84.91% stakes, respectively. It has paid up capital of 36.41 billion yuan.
China Re currently has a Best's Financial Strength Rating of A (Excellent). GIC Re currently has a Best's Financial Strength Ratings of A- (Excellent).
(By Rebecca Ng, Hong Kong news editor: Rebecca.Ng@http://biz.doczj.com/doc/268311751.html,)
CHINA DAIL Y
India's trade deficit widens as import growth outpaces exports
Updated: 2012-02-10 07:38
NEW DELHI - India's trade deficit widened to a three-month high in January as import growth outpaced the climb in exports, the top bureaucrat in the commerce ministry said.
Merchandise exports rose 10.1 percent to $25.4 billion last month from a year earlier, Commerce Secretary Rahul Khullar told reporters in New Delhi on
Thursday. Imports gained 20.3 percent to $40.1 billion, leaving a trade deficit of $14.7 billion, he said.
A trade gap Khullar said may reach $160 billion in the current fiscal year threatens to revive pressure on the rupee after it tumbled the most in Asia last year. Europe's debt crisis has curbed overseas sales by nations from Thailand to China, and the Reserve Bank of India has signaled interest-rate cuts to shield growth providing inflation slows further.
"The slowdown in the industrialized nations is affecting demand for India's exports," N.R. Bhanumurthy, a New Delhi-based economist at the National Institute for Public Finance and Policy, said before the report. "That will put pressure on the rupee to weaken."
The slowdown in Europe is weighing on exports, Khullar said, adding the current-account deficit may reach 3.5 percent of GDP in the 12 months through March. The next fiscal year will be a tough one for overseas sales, he said.
India's government two days ago predicted the weakest economic expansion this year since 2009. GDP will probably rise 6.9 percent in the 12 months through March from a year earlier, it said. Asia's third-largest economy expanded 8.4 percent from 2010 to 2011.
Growth has slowed after the reserve bank raised rates by a record amount from 2010 until October last year to fight price gains and as Europe's turmoil and policy gridlock deter investment.
The central bank on Jan 24 cut the amount of deposits lenders need to set aside as reserves for the first time since 2009, seeking to ease a cash squeeze and bolster expansion. It left the repurchase rate at 8.5 percent for a second meeting.
Thursday's report showed the climb in exports was the fastest in three months. At the same time, it fell short of the pace recorded each month from November 2009 through October 2011.
India said it will step up trade with Iran even as international sanctions against the Persian Gulf state over its nuclear program are tightened.
India, which buys about $9.5 billion of crude oil annually from Iran, plans to send a trade delegation to Teheran in a bid to boost exports of goods not covered by United Nations restrictions, Khullar told reporters in New Delhi on Thursday.
"If opportunities emerge" as other nations halt commerce with Iran "then we will snap them up", Khullar said. "We will be mounting a mission to Iran at the
end of the month to promote our own exports."
India will continue to buy Iranian oil and opposes sanctions on the Islamic Republic from anyone except the UN, Ranjan Mathai, India's foreign secretary, said on Jan 17.
India will also keep exporting rice to Iran, its biggest buyer, as the two nations take steps to clear delayed payments and boost trade.
The country will maintain shipments of basmati rice at 1 million tons a year, said Vijay Setia, president of the All India Rice Exporters Association.
Iranian buyers defaulted on payments for as much as 200,000 tons of rice in the past few months, said Setia in a phone interview. India appointed UCO Bank to open letters of credit in rupees for trade with Iran and that may help exports to continue, he said.
Export "terms will be re-written and business will continue", Setia said. Bloomberg News
(China Daily 02/10/2012 page17)
The second meeting of the Sino-Indian Strategic Economic Dialogue will be held in India in 2012 Securities Times, September 26 from the Development and Reform Commission was informed that the second meeting of the Sino-Indian Strategic Economic Dialogue will
be held in 2012 in India.
Blue Book: China and India to carry out the Strategic Economic Dialogue to promote bilateral cooperation in the implementation
Reuters, January 4, 2012, jointly organized by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Asia Pacific and the Global Institute for Strategic Studies, Social Sciences Documentation Publishing House, 2012
"Asia-Pacific Development Report" conference "held in Beijing.The experts analyzed the overall development of the 2010-2011 Asia-Pacific region, predicted in 2012 the trend of development in the Asia-Pacific region, and officially released the 2012 Asia-Pacific Blue Book "Asia-Pacific Development Report (2012).
The first meeting of the Sino-Indian Strategic Economic Dialogue held in Beijing on September 26, 2011, which is Asia's two neighbors on their own economic situation, macroeconomic policy and the related fields of industrial policy and pragmatic cooperation, the first exchange and dialogue. China-India relations go beyond the bilateral scope and is increasingly global and strategic significance of the strategic economic dialogue beyond the economic sphere, with the global strategic significance.
The Blue Book points out, the context of major concern in India, the first meeting of the Sino-Indian Strategic Economic Dialogue is no doubt focus on resolving India's growing trade deficit in the trade imbalance gradually. However, China and India each other's economic situation and macroeconomic policy dialogue, bilateral "hot spot" into the more widely in relation to the development of each other within the framework of, and not a "stop-gap measures to treat the foot," the way to treat This is indeed an important symbol of the bilateral relations have entered a rational stage of development. At present, the world economic outlook is uncertain, the increased uncertainty in the international political situation, in the context of the United States as the representative of the Western developed countries, economic recovery difficult, as a close neighbor of the two emerging economies through the establishment of the strategic economic dialogue mechanism, strengthen The country's macroeconomic policy coordination, to jointly cope with the problems and challenges in each other's economic development, not only is timely and necessary.
The Blue Book also pointed out that the pragmatic cooperation of China and India first strategic economic dialogue between China and India to build a platform, "Sino-US Strategic and Economic Dialogue" was
established in April 2009 compared to the former issue is still very limited, Many cooperation from the implementation of the "concept" to "practice".Moreover, the Strategic Economic Dialogue in China and India can develop into a "strategic economic dialogue", is also affected by many factors, but this is undoubtedly the direction of the bilateral efforts.
Overall, the 2011 Sino-Indian relations is stable. Indian Navy to strengthen the presence of the South China Sea and India's involvement in the South China Sea disputes event also shows that since 2010 India's stance on China to show the hard-line trend in the further development. India hope to expand cooperation with China on development issues on the one hand, a positive but cautious attitude; the other hand, India has misgivings on the enhancement of the strength of China's development process, as well as the South Asian region. Can be predicted that India's ambivalence will continue to exist in the future for a long period of time, the stable development of and relations between the two countries have a certain impact. Tentatively for India, confrontational behavior, Indian scholars believe that the tough stance taken by India on the issue of close to its core interests seems to have paid off. However, this tentative confrontation is unwise. Hard-won good situation of the Sino-Indian good-neighborly and friendly relations. China's positive attitude to conform to the expectations of India, through the establishment of a strategic economic dialogue mechanism to solve the development problems facing each other, is based on efforts to safeguard the overall interests of a stable and healthy development of bilateral relations. In this regard, the Indian policy-makers should have a clear understanding. The two countries should not only effectively take care of each other's core concerns and do not want to own unreasonable demands imposed on the other side, this requires not only wisdom, skill, need to mind.
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Foreign Direct Investment in India’s Single and Multi-Brand Retail
New opportunities and developments lie in store for foreign retailers
By Chris Devonshire-Ellis and Ankit Shrivastava, Dezan Shira & Associates
Feb. 2 – As India has liberalized its single brand retail industry to permit 100 percent foreign investment, we take a look at the regulatory issues and legal structures pertinent to establishing operations in this new dynamic market. That India should be well on the radar for foreign retailers was recently supported by A.T. Kearney, whose 2011 Global Retail Development Index ranks the nation as fourth globally.
India’s retail industry is estimated to be worth approximately US$411.28 billion and is still growing, expected to reach US$804.06 billion in 2015. As part of the economic liberalization process set in place by the Industrial Policy of 1991, the Indian government has opened the retail sector to FDI slowly through a series of steps
India’s Per Capita Income Rises 16.9%
Feb. 1 – India’s average income for the fiscal year 2010-2011 rose 16.9 percent to reach a US$1,000 average for the first time, according to data released by the Central Statistics Office this
week.
“Real GDP growth is outstripping population growth so per capita income has been on the rise,” stated D.K. Joshi, chief economist at Crisil.
India Further Liberalizes FDI Policy, Drops Mandatory Lock-In Period
Jan. 26 –The Indian government is loosening its foreign direct investment regulations and is now allowing foreign investors the opportunity to repatriate their original investment before the expiration of a three-year lock-in period from the day it completes its minimum capitalization norm for the sector.
While the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion has expressed misgivings about the policy change, the government has contended that this restriction can be done away with if the investor offers an acceptable reason for not making the investment.
India Trade Statistics for April-December 2011 Jan. 20 –India’s exports grew by 25.8 percent over the period running from April to December 2011, reaching a total of US$217.6 billion. The Ministry of Commerce informed that over that same time-frame, imports grew by 30.4 percent and were valued at US$350.9 billion, resulting in a negative trade balance of US$133.3 billion.
The Ministry also informed that India’s exports for the month of December 2011 were US$25 billion and imports stood at US$37.8 billion – coming out to a negative trade balance of US$12.8 billion.
India Sees Credit Rating Upgrade
Jan. 17 –Moody’s Investor Services has upgraded its rating on India’s long-term government bonds denominated in the domestic currency from Ba l to Baa 3 (from speculative to investment grade). The long-term country ceiling on the overseas currency bank deposits was also upgraded from Ba l to Baa 3 (from speculative to investment grade). Also, Moody’s had upgraded the short-term government bonds denominated in the domestic currency from NP
(not prime) to P-3 (from speculative to investment grade). This short-term rating had been upgraded for the first time since it was newly assigned in 1998.
India Allows 100% FDI in Single Brand Retail Jan. 11 – The Indian government on Tuesday agreed to allow 100 percent foreign ownership in single brand retail stores, paving the way for international businesses such as Starbucks, Ikea and Adidas to operate independently in the country without having to involve local partners. Foreign single brand retailers were previously limited to 51 percent ownership.
Besides the entrance of new companies into the Indian market, the decision is also likely to result in several existing foreign players operating under tie-ups with Indian companies to convert their existing ventures into wholly-owned subsidiaries.
External Commercial Borrowings in Chinese Renminbi
Sept. 29 –Taking into consideration the particular needs of the infrastructure sector, the existing external commercial borrowing
(ECB) policy has been reviewed in discussions with the Government of India and it has been decided to permit Indian companies which are in the infrastructure sector –where “infrastructure” is defined under the existing guidelines on ECB – to avail of ECBs in Chinese renminbi (RMB), under the approval route, subject to a yearly cap of US$1 billion until further review.
India Set to Overtake Japan as World’s Third Largest Economy
Sept. 20 – With Japan’s economy in the doldrums and expected to shrink following the devastating earthquake and tsunami that hit the country earlier this year, India’s 8 percent growth is likely to see it emerge as the world’s third largest economy this year, in purchasing power parity terms.
India currently ranks fourth, with 2010 International Monetary Fund data showing that the Japanese economy was worth about US$4.31 trillion, with India close behind at US$4.06 trillion.
ICBC Sets Up Shop in India
Sept. 20 – China’s most valuable bank – Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC) –has become the first Chinese bank to establish itself in India. The bank is planning to start with an investment of US$100 million and aims to lend to corporations and cover sectors where Chinese companies have a presence such as power, telecom and infrastructure. The bank has set up an office in the Bandra-Kurla business district in central Mumbai and has appointed Sun Xiang as CEO for India.
Indian Domestic Demand Halves Iron Ore Exports
Aug. 22 – India’s iron ore exports fell for the first time last year and have further declined as a result of massive domestic demand. A government policy of promoting nationalism in resources is driving down India’s exports of the commodity and is helping to reduce international prices. To assist with getting enough ore into domestic redevelopment projects, India has raised freight rates and tariffs, including a quadrupling of export taxes for iron ore over the past 12 months. Exports have responded by declining 17 percent.
India’s Updated 2011 Foreign Trade Statistics Dec. 7 –The value of India’s exports throughout October 2011 were recorded at US$19.87 billion, good for a 10.82 percent increase over the level of US$17.93 billion during October 2010. The increasing value of exports for the period of April-October this fiscal year was US$179.78 billion against US$123.17 billion over the same stage last year, recording growth of 45.96 percent.
India’s monthly imports during October 2011 were recorded at US$39.51 billion, showing a development of 21.72 percent over the level of US$32.46 billion experienced in October last year. The swelling value of imports for the period of April-October this fiscal was US$273.47 billion as against US$208.82 billion over the same period last year, recording an increase of 30.96 percent.
India’s Foreign Trade in June 2011
Exports
Aug. 5 –India’s exports through June 2011 were valued at US$29.21 billion, which was 46.45 percent superior to the level of US$19.94 billion seen in June 2010. On an expanded timeframe, the growing value of
exports for the period April-June 2011-12 was US$79.00 billion against US$54.22 billion over the same period a year earlier –good for a 45.71 percent increase.
印度2011年最新对外贸易统计Posted on December 7, 2011 by India Briefing 12.7-2011年10月，印度出口总值创纪录的达到198亿7千万美元，同比2010年10月的179亿3千万美元，增幅达到10.82%。本年度4月到十月出口额增加了1797亿8千万美元，相比2010年同阶段1231亿7千万美元增长达到45.96%。
Imports
India’s imports for the duration of June 2011 came to US$36.87 billion, showing a growth of 42.46 percent over the level of imports valued at US$25.88 billion in June 2010. An increasing value of imports for the interval of April-June 2011-12 was US$110.61 billion as against US$81.20 billion over the same period in 2010 –good for a 36.22 percent increase.
Despite Blockage, Oil Continues to Flow Freely Between Iran and India
Jan. 5 –In a piece published on India Briefing last week, we discussed the suspension of Indian payments to Iran through the ACU (Asian
Clearing Union). As a temporary fix, Iran has promised uninterrupted crude oil supply to India this month while India arranges its payments through a German bank based in Hamburg. A more permanent solution will be explored at a meeting in Tehran next week.
“There was no disruption in supplies and a payment mechanism for January crude imports is already in place,”Secretary of India’s Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas S. Sundareshan told reporters at a press briefing.
Indian Economy Recovers by 6.1 Percent
Sept. 1 –India’s economy grew by 6.1 percent from April to June despite the previous quarter’s 5.8 percent growth and the economic crisis stunting its manufacturing and services sectors.
According to Delhi’s Central Statistical Organization, mining, electricity and financing sectors performed well during the quarter while there was a registered slowdown in trade, hotels, transport and communication industries. The Hindu reports that manufacturing was down to 3.4 percent from 5.5 percent and agriculture slowed to 2.4 percent from 3 percent compared to last year.
India’s RBI Cuts Cash Reserve Requirement
Jan. 30 – The Reserve Bank of India cut cash reserve requirements (CRR) for banks by 50 basis points last Tuesday to relieve tight liquidity, indicating a policy shift towards reviving growth after nearly two years of fighting inflation. With core inflation still inflexibly high, the RBI left its policy repo rate unchanged at 8.50 percent for the second consecutive review. The central bank had raised rates 13 times between March 2010 and October 2011, which made it one of the most hawkish central banks over that time period.
Amendments in India’s Industrial Policy
Nov. 15 –The main purposes of India’s Industrial Policy of the Government are to maintain a sustained growth in productivity, to enhance gainful employment, to achieve optimal utilization of human resources, to attain international competitiveness, and to transform India into a major partner and player in the global arena. The Policy focus is on deregulating Indian industry, giving the
industry freedom and flexibility in responding to market forces and providing a policy regime that facilitates and fosters growth within the country’s industry.
Wholly Owned Subsidiaries in India
Jan. 13 – Foreign companies can set up wholly owned subsidiaries in sectors where 100 percent foreign direct investment is permitted under India’s national FDI policy. For registration and incorporation, a set of applications have to be filed with Registrar of Companies (ROC). Once a company has been duly registered and incorporated as an Indian company, it is subject to Indian laws and regulations as applicable to other domestic Indian companies.
Industrial Policy
Main features
Objectives of the Industrial Policy of the Government are –
● to maintain a sustained growth in productivity;
● to enhance gainful employment;
● to achieve optimal utilisation of human resources;
● to attain international competitiveness and
● to transform India into a major partner and player in the global arena. Policy focus is on –
● Deregulating Indian industry;
● Allowing the industry freedom and flexibility in responding to market forces and
● Providing a policy regime that facilitates and fosters growth of Indian industry.
Policy measures
Some of the important policy measures announced and procedural simplifications undertaken to pursue the above objectives are as under:
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翻译合同模板（标准版） 备注:本合同书适用于约定双方经过谈判、协商而共同承认、共同遵守的责任与义务，同时阐述确定的时间内达成约定的承诺结果。文档可直接下载或修改，使用时请详细阅读内容。 甲方: 乙方: 关于甲方委托乙方进行资料翻译事宜，双方经过认真协 商，特制订协议如下: 1.翻译质量 乙方应当保证译文的翻译质量达到行业公允的水平，如 对译文的翻译水平发生争议，应由双方共同认可的第三方评判，或者直接申请仲裁。 2.修改与补充 全部价款付清之后，作业乙方应负责稿件的再次修改、 审校，不得收取任何费用，但不包括甲方新增加、修订的部分。 中止翻译 :如甲方在乙方翻译过程中，要求中止翻译，甲方须根据乙方的翻译进度，按乙 方已经翻译的字数，以协定的单价计算翻译费给乙方 3.资料保密 乙方保证不泄露翻译稿件的客户商业秘密及个人隐私。 对于甲方委托的翻译稿件中所涉及内容及相关信息，乙方不得泄露稿件
中任何内容及商业秘密。由于乙方保护不当或其他人为原因致乙方稿件内容泄露或信息流失，所造成的一切损失，概由乙方承担全部责任。 4.仲裁 甲乙任何一方不按本协议履行其职责，视为违约，另 方可以提出质疑并要求对方纠正，若对方不纠正，另一方可以提出经济赔偿或中止协议要求，赔偿额不少于实际损失额。 若通过仲裁机构解决时，新产生的诉讼等费用由败诉方承担。 5.协议文种、份数 此协议用中文写成，共两份，甲方一份，乙方一份。传 真件与协议正本一同有效。 客户委托单（无法填写的项目，可不填写）翻译内容单价元/千字
摘要出口是拉动中国经济起飞的重要引擎。对于许多希望从事外贸的中小企业而言，每每涉及英文合同时常一筹莫展，不知如何下笔；有的缺乏重视，简单援用标准合同或直接使用国外客户发来的合同。为解决企业签订英文外贸合同中存在的问题，本文针对外贸合同中的常用条款一一进行了风险分析，就起草和签订英文外贸合同应注意文字处理提出了建议。 关键词外贸合同条款风险规避 据国家统计局2009年1月22日发布的信息①，2008年中国外贸进出口总额25616亿美元，同比增长17.8%，贸易顺差约2955亿美元，是世界数一数二的出口大国。然而，许多企业在对外贸易的过程中，有的忽视了合同的订立，只在合同中列出原则性意向，对有些重要交易条件不做具体规定；有的因语言水平以及人力、物力条件的限制，要么援用标准合同，要么要求外方起草英文合同。殊不知，这样对自身权益的保护带来了极大隐患。跨国贸易中，不仅有专业的国际骗子和无良商人骗取钱财，即使是正规的公司在遇到市场变化、财务恶化或其他情势变化时也可能利用合同的漏洞作出于己方有利的举措。因此，本文旨在通过对国际货物买卖合同条款的剖析，为企业订立英文外贸合同提供文字处理方面的参考性意见。 1合同标题 合同标题可以省略，但如果有标题，为避免对合同效力产生争议，不要以“备忘录M emorandum”、“建议书Proposal”以及“意向书Letter of Intent”等其他名称命名。 2“鉴于”条款（Whereas Clause） 合同中的鉴于条款，主要介绍缔约双方签订合同时的目的或背景。它不是合同的必备条款，对合同双方也不具有约束力，但是简洁、清晰的鉴于条款在争议产生时能帮助法官了解当事人的真实意图。因此重大合同中的鉴于条款应注意： 1）避免规定具体的权利和义务以避免造成对己方不利的约束。 2）避免出现与事实相反或与合同条款矛盾的文字表述。3合同当事人（Parties of Contract） 合同当事人说明合约当事人的姓名或名称、当事人的国籍与住所或主营业所等等。在英文中要注意注册所在地（Registered address）与主营业所（Principal address）的区别。当事人的名称与其信息应保持一致，防止不法分子虚构合同主体或进行无资格主体诈骗。仔细核对对方当事人的名称，许多大公司的名称和子公司名称很相似，如Johnson In-dustries Inc.和Johnson Industrial and Co.Ltd.就不是同一家公 司，它们的经济实力和履约能力的差别可能很大。如果担心对方的履约能力,可以要求其母公司提供担保或支持函。② 4品名（Name of commodity）和品质（quality of goods）条款 品名应使用国际通用名称，如苹果酒国际上通用cidre，就不要用apple wine。如果进口商要求改变品名以逃避关税或商检，不应予以支持。 商品描述必须明确、具体，有些出口商不重视品名的具体化也没有品牌意识，该注明品牌的不注，甚至仿古制品也省略仿制二字，极易造成争议。如何具体化？可加入具体的品种、等级或型号的概括性描述。如Sewing M achines,M odel NkBI-1”；“Fresh Egg,Grade A：50-55gm per egg”；“Bed Sheets,200x230cm,White”；“Philips Brand Vacuum Flask”. 品质条款应注意： 1）不要出现“大约about”、“左右approximate”、“合理误差reasonable allowance”等模糊语。 2）切勿将品质定得过高，超出自身的履约能力。 3）凭样品买卖时，给出样品的编号，必要时列出样品寄送的日期。尽量确认多个样品显示可接受的品质偏差范围。最好规定“品质与样品大致相同”。如果样品仅供对方参考品质，应注明“sample only for reference”。 4）凭文字说明买卖时，应明确规定商品的品名、规格、等级、标准、品牌或产地名称等内容。在凭说明书和图样表示商品品质时，应列出说明书、图样的名称、份数等内容。 5）尽量规定品质机动幅度（quality latitude）或品质公差（quality tolerance），给出幅度的上下限或公差的允许值。规定买方无权拒收未超出机动幅度或品质公差范围的货物，也不得要求调整价格。对于品质低于规定者也应给出具体的减价方案。 6）品质标准的约定要明确国家和版本，也不得低于法定商检规定的标准。 7）尽量不要使用多重标准。注意各品质指标之间的内在联系和相互关系。给出各指标的检验方法，防止外商设定某一过高指标或利用不同的检验方法得出不同品质指标进行诈骗。 5数量条款（Quantity Clause） 数量条款要求准确、具体，不应出现不同的计量单位。重量应明确是毛重、净重、理论重量，还是公量等。如果货物受本身的特性或包装和运输以及计量工具的限制，难以精确达到合同规定的数量，如大宗散装货物，可采用M ore or Less Clause—— —溢短装条款：The seller has the option of ship-ping4%more or less on contracted quantity.设立溢短装条款时 （中南财经政法大学外国语学院湖北·武汉４３００７０） 中图分类号：H31文献标识码：A文章编号：1672-7894（2010）07-201-03 ２０１
第四节 AIA系列合同及CM和IPD合同模式 一、CM模式 （1）AIA合同 1）A系列：业主与施工承包商、CM承包商、供应商，以及总承包商与分包商之间的标准合同文件 2）B系列：业主与建筑师之间的标准合同文件 3）C系列：建筑师与专业咨询人员之间的标准合同文件 4）D系列：建筑师行业内部使用的文件 5）E系列：合同和办公管理中使用的文件 6）F系列：财务管理报表 （2）CM合同的内涵 1）指由业主委托一家CM单位承担项目管理工作，该CM单位以承包单位的身份进行施工管理，并在一定程度上影响工程设计活动，组织快速路径（Fast-track）的生产方式，使工程项目实现有条件的边设计边施工2）CM模式尤其适用于实施周期长、工期要求紧的大型复杂工程 3）与传统总分包模式下施工总承包商对分包合同的管理理不同，CM合同属于管理承包合同 （4）风险型CM施工阶段的工作 （5）风险型CM的合同计价方式（成本加酬金） 1）采用成本加酬金的计价方式，成本部分由业主承担，CM承包商获取约定的酬金 2）CM承包商签订的每一个分包合同均对业主公开，CM承包商不赚取总包与分包合同之间的差价 3）酬金约定通常可选用如下方式： 1.固定酬金 2.按分包合同价的百分比取费 3.按分包合同实际发生工程费用的百分比取费 （6）保证工程最大费用值（GMP）
（7）可以与雇主协商调整GMP的情况（甲方原因） 1）发生设计变更或补充图纸 2）业主要求变更材料、设备的标准、系统、种类、数量和质量 3）业主签约交由CM承包商管理的施工承包商或雇主指定分包商与CM承包商签约的合同价大于GMP中的相应金额等情况 二、IPD模式 1）概念阶段 2）标准设计阶段 3）详细设计阶段 4）执行文件阶段 5）机构审查阶段 6）采购分包阶段 7）施工阶段 8）竣工收尾阶段 （3）报酬激励方面 1）参与各方共同商定项目目标实现的报酬金额 2）若实际成本小于目标成本，则业主应将结余资金按合同约定的比例支付给其他参与方作为激励报酬 3）若项目实际成本超出目标成本，根据合同约定，业主可选择偿付工程的所有成本，包括设计单位和承包商人员的工资，也可选择不再偿付任何单位的人员成本，只支付材料、设备和分包成本 （4）索赔与争端处理 1）在索赔方面，参与各方应放弃任何对其他参与方的索赔（故意违约等情形除外） 2）在争端处理方面，该模式下任何一方提出的争议应提交到由业主、设计单位、承包商等参与方的高层代表和项目中立人所组成的争议处理委员会协商解决，项目中立人由参与各方共同指定
CONTRACT N 合约号 SELLER'S TRANSACTION CODE 交易代码BUYER'S TRANSACTION CODE 交易代码 Seller 卖方 ADDRESS 地址: TEL 电话: FAX 传真: CELL 手机: EMAIL 电子信箱: G. M 总经理: Buyer 买方 ADDRESS 地址: TEL 电话: FAX 传真: CELL 手机:
EMAIL 电子信箱: G. M 总经理:
THE LEGAL OFFICE IS : 法律的办事处 PRESIDENT : THE OFFICIAL AGENT IS : 职务上的代理商 PRESIDENT : INVOICE NUMBER : 发票号码 COMMERCIAL INVOICE NUMBER : 商业发票号码 WHEREAS, The parties mutually desire to execute This Contract which shall be binding upon, and to the benefit of, the parties, successors and assigns, in accordance with the jurisdictional law of the negotiated and fully executed Contract with terms and provisions hereunder agreed upon. 鉴于双方均有意履行本合同并接受 其及于各方承继人和受让人的约束及利益，根据管辖法，各方按照约定的条款予以履行义务
中英文合同中常用词词义的选择 英文合同中的词语是构成合同文本最基本的单位。对合同文本中的一些单词词义的正确选择，是翻译合同文书的前提和基础。如果选择的词义不确切，整篇译文就难以理解。在翻译合同文件时，会涉及到经济、法律、贸易、金融、技术等领域的专业词汇，这些词汇在不同的合同条款和上下文中的表达和词义有很大区别。即使在同一专业中的词义都有很大区别，因此我们必须仔细推敲，选择最确切的词义。例如：cover一词，作为动词讲一般都理解为“包括”，例如：The prices quoted in the brochure cover packing and are subject to 35％trade discount，可译为：“小册子所报的价格包括包装费在内，可有35％的商业折扣。”但以下的含有cover的句子，就不能将cover译成“包括”： (1) No doubt there must have been some reason for the delay in shipment. To cover this contingency we cabled you On Mar．29 that we were extending the letter of credit for two weeks．句中的cover应理解为“应付”，全句可译成： 无疑，一定有某种致使装船延误的原因。为应付这一意外事件，我方已于3月29日电告你方，将信用证延期两周。 (2) If Party A insists on ifs original quotation. Party B will have to cover its requirements elsewhere 句中的cover指“购进货物”，全句可译成： 如果甲方坚持原报价，则乙方只能从其他方面购进其需要的货物。 (3) In order to cover our order, we have arranged with the Bank of China, Dalian Branch, a credit for USD 55，000． 句中的cover在这里表示“偿付”，全句可译成： 为支付我方订货，我方已联系中国银行大连分行开立55，000美元的信用证。 (4) Party B shall cover the goods with particular average． 句中的cover在这里的含义为：to insure sth against loss，全句可译成： 乙方将对该货物投保水渍险。 英译汉是如此，汉译英时也应该注意同类的问题。请看下面的句子： 如在解释上有分歧，应以英文本为准。 该句中的“解释”在汉英词典上可以有多种选择，如：explanation，construe，exposition，interpretation，但该句中的“解释”是对依法成立的合同条款的正式性解释，应选择interpretation，全句可译成： In case Of any divergence Of interpretations, the English text shall prevail。 以上例子仅是选择词义的一个方面。本章将就合同翻译时经常碰到的词义处理问题，归纳为三个方面：同义词的选择，一词多义的问题，容易混淆的词的处理。现分述如下： 1. Choice of Synonyms同义词的选择 同义词在英语中为数不少，在合同英语中也时常出现，翻译时必须作出正确选择。否则，如
ICE合同的全称 JCT合同范本情况简介 JCT合同范本情况简介 1. 国际知名工程合同范本 现在国际上具有影响力的合同示范文本主要包括:国际咨询工程师联合会制定的FIDIC系列合同、美国建筑师学会的AIA系列合同文件、英国土木工程师协会的ICE施工合同条件及NEC施工合同条件、英国联合合同委员会制定的JCT合同条件。 1.1(FIDIC 合同范本 FIDIC是国际咨询工程师联合会的简称，是当今世界上最权威的咨询工程师组织。1999 年，FIDIC 正式出版了一系列新的标准合同条件，即《施工合同条件》(新红皮书)、《生产设备和设计-建造合同条件》 (新黄皮书)、《设计-采购-施工/交钥匙合同条件》 (银皮书)、《简明合同格式》(绿皮书)。 1.2(AIA 合同范本 AIA 是美国建筑师学会(The American Institute of Architects)的简称。AIA 出版的系列合同文件在国际工程承包界，特别是在美洲地区具有较高的权威性，应用广泛。AIA出版的合同文本可以按照两种方式来进行分类。第一种方式是按照“系列”(series)，即使用该合同文本的合同双方的关系,共分为五个系列。第二种方式是按照“族”(family)，即该合同文本所适用的工程建设模式,共分为八族。 1.3(ICE 合同范本与 NEC 合同范本 ICE 是英国土木工程师学会(The Institution of Civil Engineers)的简称。CE 在土木工程建设合同方面具有高度的权威性，对 FIDIC 合同条件有重要影响。
NEC最新版是 2005 年 7 月出版的第三版。NEC合同采用了全新的理念编制，其目的是增进合同各方的合作、建立团队精神，明确合同各方的风险分担，减少工程建设中的不确定性，减少索赔以及仲裁、诉讼的可能性。 1.4. JCT合同范本 JCT是英国合同审定联合会(Joint Contract Tribunal)的简称。从JCT合同内容来看，JCT章程对“标准合同”的定义为:“所有相互一致的合同文件组合，这些文本共同被使用，作为运作某一特定项目所必须的文件。”JCT 的工作是制作标准格式的组合，用于各种类型的工程承接。从其历史发展来看，JCT 先后发布了七版 JCT 合同范本。1909 年发布第一版，最新版2005年发布的一系列合同范本，全名为 JCT 2005 Suite，以下简称“JCT2005”。 2. JCT2005 Suite介绍 2.1 内容及格式 JCT 2005 不是一个单一的文本，而是由各种类型的合同构成的一整套文本。其中包括各类合同 12 种，例如小型工程建设合同、标准建造合同、设计建造合同、大型工程施工合同等等，还包括 4 种协议和抵押担保。每类合同又包括主合同、分包合同以及一些其他特 定类型的合同可能使用到的文件。 现在所有 JCT 2005 中包含的合同都采用如下统一的条款编排格式: (1)定义和解释;(2)工程实施;(3)工程监控;(4)支付;(5)变更;(6)伤害和损失保险;(7)转让、第三方权利和抵押担保;(8)终止;(9)争端的解决。 按这种分节的方式编排合同，其中每一节都涉及了建设工程的一个方面。这种按组编排的方式更具有逻辑性，避免了在合同中识别定位各方的义务等工作而来回翻阅合同的麻烦。 2.2. JCT合同范本特点
CONTRACT NO 合约号:: SELLER’S TRANSACTION CODE 交易代码: BUYER’S TRANSACTION CODE 交易代码: Seller 卖方 ADDRESS 地址: TEL 电话: FAX 传真: CELL 手机: EMAIL 电子信箱: G. M 总经理: Buyer买方 ADDRESS 地址: TEL 电话: FAX 传真: CELL 手机: EMAIL 电子信箱: G. M 总经理: THE LEGAL OFFICE IS : 法律的办事处 PRESIDENT : THE OFFICIAL AGENT IS : 职务上的代理商 PRESIDENT : INVOICE NUMBER : 发票号码 COMMERCIAL INVOICE NUMBER : 商业发票号码 WHEREAS, The parties mutually desire to execute This Contract which shall be binding upon, and to the benefit of, the parties, successors and assigns, in accordance with the jurisdictional law of the negotiated and fully executed Contract with terms and provisions hereunder agreed upon. 鉴于双方均有意履行本合同并接受其及于各方承继人和受让人的约束及利益，根据管辖法，各方按照约定的条款予以履行义务。
【摘要】商务合同是商业法人之间为实现一定的经济目的、明确相互权利义务的一种文体。商务合同英语属半法律性语言，用词准确、正式、严谨，具有鲜明文体意义。本文基于典型实例分析，探讨了商务英文合同的词汇特征及翻译方法。 【关键词】商务英文合同词汇特征翻译 商务合同是商品经济的产物，它随着商品经济的产生而产生，也随着商品经济的发展而发展，是商品交换关系在法律上的体现，受到国家法律的承认和保护。在世界经济全球化和一体化的今天，国际商务活动日益频繁，贸易国法人之间为实现一定的经济利益而签订的明确规定了贸易双方的权利和义务，具有法律效力的文件——国际商务合同的重要性也越来越突出。商务合同英语既具有商务英语的特点，同时也具有法律英语的特点。本文拟从庄重正式、准确严谨和简洁明了三个角度阐述分析商务英文合同的词汇特征及其翻译方法。 一、庄重正式 Martin Joos按照语言使用的正式程度提出了英语的五种变体，即庄重文体(frozen style)，正式文体(formal style)，商议文体（consultative style），随便文体(casual style)和亲密文体(intimate style)。一般认为商务合同英语属庄重文体，即五种变体英语中正式程度最高的一种。商务英文合同的庄重正式的词汇特征体现在专业术语和外来词古体词的使用上。 1.商务专业术语 专业术语(technical term留学生论文网http://biz.doczj.com/doc/268311751.html, s)具有鲜明的文体特色。其意义精确、单一、无歧义，且不带有个人感情色彩。为了准确描述商务活动中的各个交易环节以及与此相关的各类单据，商务合同英语文体中使用了大量表意清楚的商务专业术语。例如，policy（保险单），negotiable（可转让的），liability（责任、义务），right of recourse （追索权），factoring（保理）等。这些专业术语可避免冗长的解释，简化交易过程，提高工作效率。 2.法律专业术语 为了准确描述商务活动中交易双方各自的权利与义务，商务合同英语中也使用了较多的法律专业的术语。狭义的法律术语指仅出现在或大多数情况下出现在法律文件中的法律科学的特有术语，此意义上的法律术语在商务合同文体中的数量不多，如：imputed negligence (转嫁的过失责任)特指可向与行为人有利害关系的人或有合同关系的另一方追究责任的过失。商务合同中这类狭义的法律专业术语不以大众是否理解或接受为转移，它是商务合同语言准确表达的保障，是其独有的现象。而广义的法律术语则包括在法律文体中被赋予特定法律意义的常用词语，如action(诉讼)，party(当事人)，financial responsibility(经济责任，指违约责任，具体可指“赔偿损失”、“支付违约金”和“支付迟延支付金额的利息”)。这类词语把握不准确的话很容易导致翻译和理解当中的模糊性，因此要格外留意。如，“The contract is concluded in case of acceptance of the offer.”很容易译为“提议一旦接受，合同随即订立。”而实际上，“acceptance”与“offer”是合同法中两个重要的法律术语，其规范的译文分别为“承诺”、“要约”，前者是指受要约人对要约内容表同意，而后者则指一方希望与另一方订立合同。 3.外来词和古体词 商务合同英语中使用的商务类专业术语有不少源于拉丁语或法语，有些则是由其词根派生或合成，许多术语都有相同的前缀或后缀。它们的意义比较稳定，利于精确地表达概念，例如：ad valorem duty (拉丁语)从价(关)税，bona fide holder (拉丁语)汇票的善意持票人，pro rata tax rate比例税率(拉丁语，即proportional tax rate)，insurance premium per capita (拉丁语)人均保险费，force majeure(法语)不可抗力，pro forma (拉丁语)估算表。
外贸合同常用条款中英文对照 1)买方须于____年__月__日前开到本批交易的信用证(或通知售方进口许可证号码),并须售方有权;不经通知取消本确认书，或接受买方对本约未执行的全部或一部分,或对因此遭受的损失提出索赔。 The Buyer shall have the covering Letter of Credit reach the Seller(or notify the Import License Number) before failing which the Seller reserves the right to rescind without further notice. (2)凡以 C.I.F条件成交的业务，保额为发票价的100%,投保险别以本售货确认书中所开列的为限,买方如要求增加保额或保险范围,应于装船前经售方同意,因此而增加的保险非由买方负 责。 For transaction concluded on C.I. F.basis,it is understood that the insurance amount will be for 100%,of the invoice value against the risks specified in the Sales Confirmation.If additional insuranceamount or coverage is required, the Buyer must have the consent of the Seller before Shipment,and the additional preminum is to be borne by the Buyer. (3)品质/数量异议: 如买方提出索赔,凡属品质异议须于货到目的口岸之日起3个月内提出,凡属数量异议须于货到目的口岸之日起15天内提出, 对所装货物所提任何异议属于保险公司,轮船公司其他有关运输机构或邮递机构所负责者,售方不负责任何责任。 QUALITY/QUANTITYDISCREPANCY:
英文合同常用词汇和句型 1、开场白（合同的当事人背景介绍） 2、过渡条款 Now therefore, in consideration of the premises and covenants described herein-after, Party A and Party B agree as follows: 参考译文：因此，双方基于各自提供之对价订立本合同，并做如下约定： 注释和说明:”in consideration of premises and covenants”表示“在当事人提供的对价基础上”而非仅指“考虑到…”。读者应重点理解“premise”这个词。在一般场合下它是指与房屋相关的基础不动产或处所，但是在英文合同里边它却变成了“前提条件”。 3、结尾条款： IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have caused this Agreement to be executed by duly authorized representatives of both parties on the date and year first written above. 参考译文：本合同由被正当授权之人，于本协议于上述记载之日期代表双方当事人订立，特此证明。 注释和说明： （1）“in witness whereof”的含义类似于中文合同中常见的“口说无凭，立此为证”。 （2）“execute”在英文合同中常解为“签署”，而非“执行”。 4、favor, “in favor of somebody”= ”in one’s favor”的意思主要有两种： 以某人为受益人、有利于某人 5、subject to sth. 1) 遵从、遵守： This letter of Credit is subject to the Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (1983 Revision), international Chamber of commerce, Publication No.400. 2) 根据（法律、法规、合同） 3) 作动词用，意思是“服从于…”，“率属于…”，“使经受…” 4) 办理、存在。 5、Without prejudice to “在不损坏……”。 6、Any person who does... shall …表示任何做某人之人应。 7、For the purpose of “就……而言”。 8、Provided that 但是 9、Notwithstanding “即使，表示一种让步”。 10、in question “表示该” 11、including but not limited to “包括但不限于” 12、常理解为“有权利做某事” 1）have the right to do 2）be entitled to do 3）do sth. at one’s option or/ and discretion 4）have the authority to do 13、合同英语中“因为”的表达方法 1）owing to 2）attributable to 3）due to 4）in view of 5）by virtue of 14、notify sb. Of sth. in writing: 书面通知某人某事 15、in lieu of: 替代 16、关联企业： 1）affiliate: 广义上的具有法人人格的子公司，只要有参股关系即可，常翻译为“关联公司”
JCT 合同范本情况简介 1. 国际知名工程合同范本 现在国际上具有影响力的合同示范文本主要包括：国际咨询工程师联合会制定的 FIDIC 系列合同、美国建筑师学会的 AIA 系列合同文件、英国土木工程师协会的 ICE 施工合同条件 及 NEC 施工合同条件、英国联合合同委员会制定的 JCT 合同条件。 1.1 ．FIDIC 合同范本 FIDIC 是国际咨询工程师联合会的简称，是当今世界上最权威的咨询工程师组织。 1999 年， FIDIC 正式出版了一系列新的标准合同条件，即《施工合同条件》 （ 新红皮书 ） 、《生产 设备和设计 - 建造合同条件》 （ 新黄皮书 ） 、《设计 - 采购 - 施工 / 交钥匙合同条件》 （ 银皮书 ） 、 《简明合同格式》 （绿皮书 ） 。 1.2 ．AIA 合同范本 适用的工程建设模式 , 共分为八族。 1.3 ．ICE 合同范本与 NEC 合同范本 月出版的第三版。 NEC 合同采用了全新的理念编制，其目的是增进合同各方的合作、 2. JCT2005 Suite 介绍 2.1 内容及格式 JCT 2005 不是一个单一的文本，而是由各种类型的合同构成的一整套文本。其中包括 AIA 是美国建筑师学会 (The American Institute of Architects) 的简称。 AIA 出版的系列合同 文件在国际工程承包界，特别是在美洲地区具有较高的权威性，应用广泛。 AIA 出版的合同 文本可以按照两种方式来进行分类。第一种方式是按照“系列” series ) 本的合同双方的关系 , 共分为五个系列。第二种方式是按照“族” family ) ，即使用该合同文 ，即该合同文本 ICE 是英国土木工程师学会（ The Institution of Civil Engineers 对 FIDIC 合同条件有重要影响。 ）的简称。 CE 在土木工程 建设合同方面具有高度的权威性， NEC 最新版是 2005 年 7 建立团 队精神，明确合同各方的风险分担， 减少工程建设中的不确定性， 减少索赔以及仲裁、 诉讼 的可能性。 1.4. JCT 合同范本 JCT 是英国合同审定联合会（ Joint Contract Tribunal ）的简称。从 JCT 合同内容来看， JCT 章程对“标准合同”的定义为： 所有相互一致的合同文件组合，这些文本共同被使用，作 为运作某一特定项目所必须的文件。 ” JCT 的工作是制作标准格式的组合，用于各种类型的 工程承接。从其历史发展来看， JCT 先后发布了七版 JCT 合同范本。 1909 年发布第一版， 最新版 2005 年发布的一系列合同范本，全名为 JCT 2005 Suite ，以下简称“ JCT2005 ”。
第五周额外作业：外贸合同常用条款 1. Terms of Payment:付款方式： (1) Letter of Credit: The Buyer shall, _______ days prior to the time of shipment/after this Contract comes into effect, open an irrevocable Letter of Credit in favor of the Seller. The Letter Of Credit shall expire ________ days after the completion of loading of the shipment as stipulated. 参考译文（1）信用证方式：买方应该在装运期前/ 合同生效后___ 日，开出以卖方为受益人的不可撤销信用证。信用证在按照合同装船完毕后___日内到期。 Copying structure: 买方应与____日前向装运时间/合同生效后，开出。。。。（语句不通，没有检查） 用词谨慎：（1）买方应该在装运期前（合同生效后）___ 日，括号不表示或者的关系，而是补充说明的关系，而装运期前不等于合同生效后；（2）买方、卖方混淆；（3）开具不可撤销信用证给卖方，勉强可以，但是出于慎重，还是要说明受益人，因为原文有强调 信用证到期后的xx天完成装船-错误；in favor of…按买方偏好，为了卖方利益-错误（普通词汇的专业意义） 卸货：unloading/ landing/ discharging of the shipment irrevocable Letter of Credit 不可撤销信用证 开证银行开具的信用证可以是： 公开议付，即欢迎任何银行予以议付: 限定议付，即只限定指名由某一银行议付； 不许议付，即不许任何银行予以议付，只许由付款银行付款取单而且付款银行直接付款的对象仅限受益人。 议付信用证negotiation credit/ negotiation L/C ：指受益人可以自由选择到那家银行兑付(2) Cash on delivery (COD): The Buyer shall pay to the Seller total amount within_______ days after the receipt of the goods. 参考译文（2）货到付款方式（COD）：买方应在收到货物后______天内将全部货款支付给卖方。 货银对付DVP：delivery versus payment, 证券交易结算时证券产品与资金同时完成交收。（常用与证券交易中） 表达不准确：买方应在。。。支付给卖方所有的金额/ 付全额给卖方/ 将全额支付给卖方/ 所有贷款 不认真-COD：化学需氧量！！！！！
英文合同常用词汇 第一节合同常用词(Usual Wording)(1) 当大量接触英文合同，就会发现英文合同中有些词或短语出现的频率非常高，往往影响或决定了对 合同的准确理解，下面就分门别类从常见实词和常见虚词两个方面进行具体介绍： 一、英文合同常用虚词（Usual Function Words） 1．Here/there/where+介词构成的古体词 基本规则：Here 代表this，there 代表that，where 代表which 或what 即here/there/where+介词=介词 +this/that/which or what Hereby: by means of; by reason of this.特此，由此，兹等意。 例句：The Buyer hereby orders from the Seller the undermentioned goods subject to the following conditions:买方向卖方订购下列商品，条件如下： Herein：in this。此中，于此。 例句：The minimum royalty herein specified shall be paid by Party B to Party A. 在此规定的最低特许权 使用费应由乙方付给甲方。 Hereinafter: later in the same Contract. 以下，在下文。通常与to be referred to as, referred as, called 连 用。 例句：This Agreement is made and concluded on ______, (date)____(year), by and between _____(hereinafter called Party A) on the one hand and _____(hereinafter called Party B) on the other hand. 本协议书于____年___月___日由_____（以下简称甲方）为一方，与_____(以下简称乙方)为另一方 签订。 Hereof：of this。关于此点，在本文件中。 Hereunder：under this. 本文件规定。 例句：Both parties agree to attempt to resolve all disputes between the parties with respect to the application or interpretation of any term hereof of transaction hereunder, through amicable negotiation.合
aia建筑合同b系列 篇一：美国AIA系列合同条件分为A、B、C、D、F、G 系列,其中建筑师行业所 一、整体解读 试卷紧扣教材和考试说明，从考生熟悉的基础知识入手，多角度、多层次地考查了学生的数学理性思维能力及对数学本质的理解能力，立足基础，先易后难，难易适中，强调应用，不偏不怪，达到了“考基础、考能力、考素质”的目标。试卷所涉及的知识内容都在考试大纲的范围内，几乎覆盖了高中所学知识的全部重要内容，体现了“重点知识重点考查”的原则。 1．回归教材，注重基础 试卷遵循了考查基础知识为主体的原则，尤其是考试说明中的大部分知识点均有涉及，其中应用题与抗战胜利70周年为背景，把爱国主义教育渗透到试题当中，使学生感受到了数学的育才价值，所有这些题目的设计都回归教材和中学教学实际，操作性强。 2．适当设置题目难度与区分度 选择题第12题和填空题第16题以及解答题的第21题，都是综合性问题，难度较大，学生不仅要有较强的分析问题和解决问题的能力，以及扎实深厚的数学基本功，而且还要
掌握必须的数学思想与方法，否则在有限的时间内，很难完成。 3．布局合理，考查全面，着重数学方法和数学思想的考察 在选择题，填空题，解答题和三选一问题中，试卷均对高中数学中的重点内容进行了反复考查。包括函数，三角函数，数列、立体几何、概率统计、解析几何、导数等几大版块问题。这些问题都是以知识为载体，立意于能力，让数学思想方法和数学思维方式贯穿于整个试题的解答过程之中。 篇二：美国建筑师学会(AIA)的合同条件体系,分为A、B、 C、D、F、G系列 一、整体解读 试卷紧扣教材和考试说明，从考生熟悉的基础知识入手，多角度、多层次地考查了学生的数学理性思维能力及对数学本质的理解能力，立足基础，先易后难，难易适中，强调应用，不偏不怪，达到了“考基础、考能力、考素质”的目标。试卷所涉及的知识内容都在考试大纲的范围内，几乎覆盖了高中所学知识的全部重要内容，体现了“重点知识重点考查”的原则。 1．回归教材，注重基础 试卷遵循了考查基础知识为主体的原则，尤其是考试说明中的大部分知识点均有涉及，其中应用题与抗战胜利70
合同翻译常用句型和词汇This contract is made in two originals 此合同一式二份，由双方各持一正 that should be held by each party. 本。What is left unmentioned in contract may 本合同未尽事宜，可由双方增补作 be added there as an appendix. 为合同附件。 The Contract is written in quadruplicate 本合同一式四份（正副本各两份）(two for original and copy respectively) 自签署后生效which shall become valid on the date of signature. This Contract is executed in two 本合同为中英文两种文本，两种文counterparts each in Chinese and English, 本具有同等效力。本合同一式两each of which shall be deemed equally 份。自双方签字（盖章）之日起生authentic. This contract is in 2 copies 效。 effective since being signed/sealed by both parties. This contract is made by and between the 本合同由买卖双方签订，根据本合buyers and sellers， whereby the buyers 同条款，买方同意购买，卖方同意 agree to buy and the sellers agree to sell 出售以下产品。the under-mentioned commodities according to the terms and conditions stipulated below. 买方 buyer 卖方 seller 项目名称