It indicates that humans initiate speech freely. This feature is not restricted to humans. Many animals use their natural communication systems freely.
6. aking（轮流性）:
It means that humans take it in turns to speak. This is not an exclusively human characteristic. Birds sometimes sing duets together. One bird sings a few phrases, then pauses while the other has its turn antiphonal singing(交互轮唱).
DOG
3. Semanticity（语义性）:
It is the use of symbols to ‗mean‘ or refer to objects and actions. Humans can generalize by applying ‗chair‘ to all types of chairs, not just one in particular.
Topics to be discussed
• Comparison between animal communication systems and human language to see if animals can be said to ‗talk‘ in any real sense • Various attempts to teach language to animals
4. Cultural transmission/tradition（文化传递）: It indicates that human beings hand down their languages from one generation to another. the distinction b/t humans & animals is not clear-cut! The role played by teaching in animal communication is unclear and varies from animal to animal – and even with species. It seems that a far greater proportion of communication is genetically inbuilt in animals than in humans.
• Problem 2: it is not always easy to decide what counts as communication in animals.
These fundamental problems show that any conclusions we draw are only tentative.
Children brought up in isolationdo not acquire language. Birds reared in isolationsing songs that are sometimes recognizable.
5. Spontaneous usage（自发使用）:
Do animals talk naturally?
• Problem 1: are we comparing systems which differ quantitatively or qualitatively?
Continuity theory: human language may have gradually evolved from a more primitive animal means of communication in a continuous line of growth-----language grew out of a primate call system (quantitatively different)
Chapter 2 Is language restricted to humans ?
• The word ‗talk‘ can be used in two totally different senses: (1) ‗to utter words‘------a talking parrot which says Damn if you poke it. (2) ‗to use language in a meaningful way‘--------humans • Can animals talk or learn to talk in a real sense? Are humans the only species which possesses language? If so, are humans the only species capable of acquiring it?
A continuity versus discontinuity divide may be over-simple. Language is a complex mosaic in which some features are continuous, and some discontinuous with ape communication.
Animals may be able to communicate about a total situation. But Vervet monkey ‘snake‘. We are not certain about whether this feature is present in animal communication. ???
Danger cries of the Vervet monkey: chutter puff adder/cobra, raup eagle, chirp lion/leopard, uh spotted hyena/Masai tribesman.
Discontinuity theory: language may be something quite different from our basic animal heritage, and superimposed on it. (qualitatively different)
to find out whether humans alone have the power of speech
• Some animals, such as dolphins and chimpanzees, have a high level of intelligence.
• If we find that language is beyond their capability, then that will indicate that language is a geneticallyprogrammed activity which is largely separate from general intelligence.
Humans still retain their basic set of animal cries, which exist alongside language. (Yelps of pain, shrieks of fear, and the different types of crying observed in babies may be closely related to the call systems of monkeys.)
How to define ‘language’?
Charles Hockett: Cornell
Ten design features which capture the essential nature of language: 1. The use of the vocal-auditory channel （发音-听觉频道）: It is the most obvious characteristic of language. It is neither unique to humans, nor all-important. (visual symbols—sign language/writing, tactile symbols—Braille) This characteristic is of little use in an attempt to distinguish animal from human communication.
9. Structure-dependence（结构依赖性）: Humans do not just apply simple recognition/ counting techniques when they speak to one another. They automatically recognized the patterned nature of language , and manipulate ‗structured chunks‘. Animals do not use structure-dependent operations.
2. Arbitrariness（任意性）: It means that human languages use neutral symbols. There is no connection between the word DOG and the four-legged animal it symbolizes. However, arbitrary symbols are not unique to humans. Gulls. Arbitrariness cannot be regarded as a critical distinction between human and animal communication.