CHAPTER ONE：Environmental InterrelationshipsEnvironment: the surrounding conditions that affect people and other organism. In a broader definition, environment is everything that affects an organism during its lifetime.环境：与某一中心事物有关的周围事物，就是这个中心事物的环境。

Environmental Science: is an interdisciplinary area of study that includes both applied and theoretical aspects of human impact on the world.The field of environmental science involves an understanding of scientific principles, economic influences, and political action. Environment decisions ofent involve compromise.(fig. 1.1) International OrganizationIn order to solve the common environmental issues, several international organizations were founded, and several international conventions were established.The international joint commission (1909)boundary waters treatyThe united nations conference on environment and development (1992, UNCED)sustainable development and biodiversity Agenda 21The Kyoto conference on climate change (1997)the Kyoto protocolThe United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)supported many environmental programs.An ecosystem：is a region in which the organisms and the physical environment form interacting unit.For solving regional environmental issues, it’s very useful to adopt ecosystem approach.No region is free of environmental concerns.Regional vignettes in AmericaThe Wideness Northcharacteristic: wilderness--areas with minimal human influence.Much of this land is owned by governments, not by individuals, so government policies have a large effect on what happens in these regions.The Agricultural Middlecharacteristic: intensive agriculture.Original, natural ecosystems have been replaced by managed agricultural enterprise.nonpoint pollution sources (pollution that does not have an easily identified point of origin).The Dry W estcharacteristic: inadequate rainfall, land is of low economic value, most of it is still the property of government.Population density is low, much of the land has a wilderness character.The Forested W estcharacteristic: sufficient rainfall, coniferous forests are the dominant vegetation.Since most of these areas are not suitable for farmland, they have been maintained as forests with some grazing activity in the more open forests. timber cutting .Environmental interests are concerned about the consequences logging would have on organisms that require mature, old-growth forests for their survival.The Great Lakes and Industrial Northeastcharacteristic: dominated by large metropolitan complexes that generate social and resource needs that are difficult to satisfy.A major concern about these pollutants is that they bioaccumulate in the food chain.Their major environmental priorities are cleaning up contaminated sites, providing more parks and recreation facilities, reducing air and water pollution, and improving transportation.The Diverse Southcharacteristic: diverse.The South is a microcosm of all the regions previously discussed. The petrochemical industry dominates the economies of Texas and Louisiana, and forestry and agriculture are significant elements of the economy in other parts of the region. Major metropolitan areas thrive, and much of the area is linked to the coast either directly or by the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The environmental issues faced in the South are as diverse as those in all the other regions.Poverty has been a problem in many areas of the South. This creates a climate that encourages state and local governments to accept industrial development at the expense of other values. Often, jobs are more important than the environmental consequences of the jobs; low-paying jobs are better than no jobs.Environmental problems are people problems.SummaryArtificial political boundaries create difficulties in managing environmental problems because most environmental units, ecosystems, do not coincide with political boundaries. Therefore, a regional approach to solving environmental problems, one that incorporates natural geographic units, is ideal. Each region of the world has certain environmental issues that are of primary concern because of the mix of population, resource use patterns, and culture.Environmental problems become issues when someone finds a situation offensive. This inevitably leads to a confrontation between groups that have different views on what constitutes an environmental problem. Many social, economic, ethical, and scientific inputs shape a person's opinions. The process of environmental decision making must take all of these inputs into account and arrive at an acceptable compromise.Environmental problems are people problems.They occur because the uses of natural resources, which some people feel are justified, result in a diminished environment for others in the region. Environmental problems are defined by the person who perceives the problem. When perceptions differ, conflict occurs. Environmental decisions inevitably involve economic considerations because someone is receiving value from the resources being used or someone perceives an economic loss because a use has been withdrawn.Compromise is the only way to resolve the Environmental conflictsCHAPTER THREE: Kinds of Ecosystems and CommunitiesSuccessionThe communities proceed through a series of recognizable, predictable changes in structure over time is called succession.Primary succession is a successional progression that begins with a total lack of organisms and bare mineral surfaces or water. Terrestrial Primary Succession Aquatic Primary Succession Secondary SuccessionAn original community is destroyed and replaced by an new community, this progress is called secondary succession.Community: is an assemblage of all the interacting populations of different species of organisms in an area.Climax community: The relatively stable, long-lasting community is called climax community Lichen A pioneer organismBiomes: Major Types of T errestrial Climax CommunitiesThe effect of elevation on climate and vegetationDeserts: A lack of water is the primary factor that determines that an area will be desert. Deserts are areas that generally receive fewer than 25 centimeters of precipitation per year.Grassland: Grasslands, also known as prairies or steppes, are widely distributed over temperate parts of the world. As with deserts, the major factor that contributes to the establishment of a grassland is the amount of available moisture. Grasslands generally receive between 25 and 75 centimeters of precipitation per year. These areas are windy with hot summers and cold to mild winters.Savanna: Tropical parts of Africa, South America, and Australia have extensive grasslands spotted with occasional trees or patches of trees. This kind of a biome is often called a savanna. These areas of the world are typically tropical, with 50 to 150 centimeters of rain per yea r. The rain i s not distributed evenly through-out the year.T ropical Dry Rainforest: Many of the tropical dry forests have a monsoon climate in which several months of heavy rainfall are followed by extensive dry periods ranging from a few to as many as eight months. (See figure 6.14) the rainfall may b e as low as 50 centimeters or as high as 200centimeters,but since the rainfall is highly seasonal, many of the plants have special adaptations for enduring drought.T ropical Rainforest: Tropical rainforests are located near the equator in Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and some islands in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. (See figure 6.15.) The temperature is normally warm and relatively constant. There is no frost, and it rains nearly every day. Most areas receive in excess of 200 centimeters of rain per year. Some receive 500 centimeters or more. Because of the warm temperatures and abundant rainfall, most plants grow very rapidly; however, soils are often poor in nutrients because water tends to carry away any nutrients not immediately taken up by plants.Marine EcosystemsThose Aquatic Ecosystems that have a high salt content are called marine ecosystems.Pelagic Marine Ecosystems: In the open ocean, many kinds of organisms floats or swim actively. Crustaceans, fish, and whales swim actively as they pursue food. Organisms that are notattached to the bottom are called pelagic organisms, and the ecosystem they are a part of is called a pelagic ecosystem.Benthic Marine Ecosystems: Organisms that live on the ocean bottom, whether attached or not, are known as benthic organisms, and the kind of ecosystem of which they are a part is called a benthic ecosystem.Estuaries: An estuaries is a special category of marine ecosystem, that consist of shallow, partially enclosed areas where freshwater enters the ocean. The saltiness of the water in the estuary changes with tides and the flow of water from rivers. The organisms that live here are specially adapted to this set of physical conditions, and the number of species is less than in the ocean or in freshwater.Freshwater EcosystemsThose that have little dissolved salt are called fresh water ecosystemsFreshwater ecosystems differ from marine ecosystems in several ways. The amount of salt present is much less, the temperature of the water can change greatly, the water is in the process of moving downhill, oxygen can often be in short supply, and the organisms that inhabit freshwater systems are different.Lakes and Ponds: Large lakes have many of the same characteristics as the ocean. If the lake is deep, there is a euphotic zone at the top.Streams and Rivers: the water is shallow, light can penetrate easily to the bottom (except for large or extremely muddy rivers). Even so, it is difficult for photosynthetic organisms to accumulate the nutrients necessary for growth, and most streams are not very productive. SummaryEcosystems change as one kind of organism replaces another in a process called succession. Ultimately, a relatively stable stage is reached, called the climax community. Succession may begin with bare rock or water, in which case it is called primary succession, or may occur when the original ecosystem is destroyed, in which case it is called secondary succession. The stages that lead to the climax are called successional stages.Major regional terrestrial climax communities are called biomes. The primary determiners of the kinds of biomes that develop are the amount and yearly distribution of rainfall and the yearly temperature cycle. Major biomes are desert, grassland, savanna, tropical rainforest, temperate deciduous forest, taiga, and tundra. Each has a particular set of organisms that is adapted to the climatic conditions typical for the area. As one proceeds up a mountainside, it is possible to witness the same kind of change in biomes that occurs if one were to travel from the equator to the North Pole.Aquatic ecosystems can be divided into marine (saltwater) and freshwater ecosystems. In the ocean, some organisms live in open water and are called pelagic organisms. Light penetrates only the upper few meters of water; therefore, this region is called the euphotic zone. Tiny photosynthetic organisms that float near the surface are called phytoplankton. They are eaten by small animals known as zooplankton, which in turn are eaten by fish and other larger organisms.CHAPTER FOUR: Population PrinciplesAn Essay on the Principle of Population---Thomas Malthus(1798)Population: a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting a particular area at a specific time.Population CharacteristicsNatality（出生率）: refers to the number of individuals added to the population through reproduction.Mortality（死亡率）: refers to the number of deaths in a population over a particular time period. Age distribution（年龄分布）: the number of individuals in each age class as a ratio of one class to another.Sex ratio（性别比例）: refers to the relative numbers of males and females.Population Growth Curve 人口增长曲线Typical population growth tends to follow a particular pattern, consisting of a lag phase, an exponential growth phase, and a stable equilibrium phase.Four periods:a lag phase（滞后阶段）an exponential growth phase（增长阶段）a stable equilibrium phase（稳定平衡阶段）a death phase（死亡阶段）Growth as normally seen under artificial conditions, e.g: lab populationsLimits to population size are:1.Food2.Waste product elimination3. Disease control4.SpaceLogistic growthMost populations are limited in growth at some carrying capacity (K) (the maximum population size a habitat can accommodate)Environmental resistance to growth may be because of: Food and shelter llimitations ；Competition and predation by other organisms ；Unfavorable physical conditionsCarrying Capacity （承载力）The carrying capacity of an area is the number of individuals of a species that can survive in that area over time.Limiting Factor: a particular condition or factor that limits the size of a population. eg: Oxygen supply, Food supply, Disease, Predators, Limited space.Reproductive StrategiesSpecies can be divided into two broad categories based on their reproductive strategies:K-strategists are usually large organisms that have relatively long lives, produce few offspring, and provide care for their offspring.R-strategist is typically a small organism that has a short life, produces many offspring, and does not reach a carrying capacity.Human Population Growth：The human population growth curve has a long lag phase followed by a sharply rising exponential growth phase that is still rapidly increasing.Growth will slow down either due to decreased births or increased deaths.SummaryPopulation birthrate (natality) death rate (mortality)Population growth is determined by the combined effects of the birthrate and death rate.sex ratio Age distribution typical population growth curvecarrying capacity four major categories K-strategistsr-strategists are generally small, short-living organisms that reproduce very quicklyThe human population is increasing at a rapid rate. The earth's ultimate carrying capacity for humans is not known. The causes for human population growth are not just biological but also social, political, philosophical, and theological.第五单元Interactions: Environment and Organisms环境和生物间的相互作用Every form of life and all societies require a constant input of energyIf the flow of energy through organisms or societies ceases, they stop functioning and begin to disintegrate1 Ecological ConceptsEcology:is the study of the ways organisms interact with each other and with their nonliving surroundings.Environment:Everything that affects an organism during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment.it is useful to subdivide the concept of environment into abiotic (nonliving) and biotic (living) factors.Abiotic factors can be organized into several broad categories: energy, nonliving matter, and processes that involve the interaction of nonliving matter and energy.Biotic factors include all forms of life with which it interacts.Limiting Factors: a shortage or absence of a key factor restricts the success of the species; thus the factor is known as a limiting factor.Habitat: The habitat of an organism is the space that the organism inhabits, the place where it lives (its address)Niche: is the functional role it has in its surroundings (its profession).Limiting factor: A shortage or absence of a key factor restricts the success of the species; thus the factor is known as a limiting factor.2 The Role of Natural Selection and EvolutionPopulation: a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting a particular area at a specific time.Species :is a population of organisms in which the individuals are potentially able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.Natural selection: is the process that determines which individuals within a species will reproduce and pass their genes to the next generation.Evolution:the changes that can be seen in the genes and the characteristic displayed bysuccessive generations of population of organisms over time.Extinction:is the loss of an entire species.The Mechanism of Natural Selection1.Individuals within a species showed variation; some of the variations were very useful and others were not.2. Organisms within a species typically produce many more offspring than can survive. This means that there is not enough suitable habitat for all of the offspring to grow to maturity.3. The excess number of individuals results in a struggle for survival. Individuals within the population must compete with each other for food, space, mates, or other requirements that are in limited supply.4. Because of variation among individuals, some have a greater chance of surviving and reproducing than others.5. As time passes and each generation is subjected to the same process, the percentage of individuals showing favorable variations will increase and those having unfavorable variations will decrease. Thus, the species will become better and better adapted to its environment.4 community and ecosystem interactionsCommunity: is an assemblage of all the interacting populations of different species of organisms in an area.Major Roles of Organisms:Producers: are able to make new, complex, organic material from the atoms in their environment. Consumer s: all other organisms rely on producers as a source of food, either directly or indirectly. These other organisms are called consumers.Decomposer: use nonliving organic matter as a source of food.Energy Flow Through Ecosystems:An ecosystem is a stable, self-regulating unit. To maintain itself, it must have a continuous input of energy. The only significant source of energy for most ecosystems is sunlight energy.Food Chains and Food Webs:The passage of energy from one trophic level to the next as a result of one organism consuming another is known as a food chain.When several food chains overlap and intersect, they make up a food web.Every form of life and all societies require a constant input of energyIf the flow of energy through organisms or societies ceases, they stop functioning and begin to disintegrateOrigin of energy source: sunlight photosynthesis producer: Plant AlgaKind of biological energy sources：wood natural gas oil coalFossil fuels: remains of organisms that lived millions of years ago. (stored sunlight), including coal, oil, natural gas.Industrial RevolutionHistorically, the first fossil fuel to be used extensively was coal. In the early eighteenth century, regions of the world that had readily available coal deposits were able to switch to this new fuel and participate in a major cultural change known as the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution began in England and spread to much of Europe and North America. It involved theinvention of machines that replaced human and animal labor in manufacturing and transporting goods. Central to this change was the invention of the steam engine, which could convert heat energy into the energy of motion. The source of energy for steam engines was either wood or coal; wood was quickly replaced by coal in most cases. Nations without a source of coal, or those possessing coal reserves that were not easily exploited, did not participate in the Industrial Revolution.A direct link exists between economic growth and the availability of inexpensive energy. The replacement of human and animal energy with fossil fuels began with the Industrial Revolution and was greatly accelerated by the supply of cheap, easy-to-handle, and highly efficient fuels.Because of link between energy and productivity, most industrial societies want to ensure a continuous supply of affordable energy.The emphasis on low-priced fuels has encouraged high rates of consumption.A(6).Describe the carbon cycle in detail.(12points)答：Carbon atoms are cycle through ecosystems. Plants can incorporate carbon atoms from carbon dioxide into organic molecules when they carry on photosynthesis. The carbon-containing molecules are passed to animals when they eat plants or other animals. Organic wastes or dead organisms are consumed by decay organisms. All organisms, plants, animals, and decomposers return carbon atoms to the atmosphere when they carry on respiration. Oxygen atoms are being cycled at the same time that carbon atoms are being cycled.A(7).Describe the process of primary succession.(10points)答：Is a successional progression that begins with a total lack of organisms and bare mineral surfaces or water. Such conditions can occur when volcanic aactivity causes lava flows or glaciers scrape away the organisms and soil. Similarly, a lowering of sea level exposes new surfaces for colonization by terrestrial organisms. Primary succession often takes an extremely long time, since there is no soil and few readily available nutrients for plants to use for growth.A(8).List the difference between freshwater and marine ecosystems.(8points)答：The amount of salt present is much less, the temperature of the water can change greatly, the water is in the process of moving downhill, oxygen can often be in short supply, and the organisms that inhabit freshwater systems are different.B(1).Give example of organisms that are herbivores, carnivores and omnivores答：Cattle, sheep, rabbits, tigers and lions, wild boars, rats, bearsB(2).List two different aquatic ecosystem答：lakes, ponds and reservoirs rivers, streams, ditchesB(3).List three different symbiotic relationships答：The ants and the tree Leguminous plants and Rhizobium Human and intestinal floraB(4).List the factors that determined the growth of population答：Natality mortality sex ratio and distributionB(5).List the ways of energy consumption in the early human history答：Wood or other plant material provided a source of fuel for heating and cooking shaping tools and extracting metals。