Phonological structure音系结构Which sound units are used and how they are put togetherPhonological analysis 音系学分析Take a word, replace one sound by another, and see whether a different meaning results. (minimal pairsPhonemic contrastThe relation between 2 phonemes when they occur in the same environment and distinguish meaningPhonological rule 音系规则a formal way of expressing a systematic phonologicalprocess or sound change in language.AssimilationDissimilation 异化A process where 2 identical or similar phonemes changes or displaces the other oneSuprasegmental/Phonological features (syllable stress tone intonationThose aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segmentsSyllable structure 音节结构(divided into rhyme and onsetComponential analysisA way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.Grammatical construction 语法结构The process of internal organization of a grammatical unit( IC analysisSyntactic construction 句法结构(endo/exo-centric constructionSyntactic function 句法功能Shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is usedGrammatical ruleBy which the grammaticality of a sentence is governedGrammatical relationsThe structural and logical functional relations of constituentsSyntactic relationspositional/substitutability/co-occurrencesyntagmatic relationbetween one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. paradigmatic relationa relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structu re, or between one element present and he others absent.immediate constituent analysis:the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituentsDistinctive features:a term of phonology, i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another. (phonological contrast binary/place featuresAllophone: any of the different forms of a phonemeallomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme.Phoneme: smallest constrastive unit in the sound system of a languageMorpheme: smallest meaningful linguistic unitPhonetics: how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received (description&classification Phonology: sound pattern& shape of syllablesMorphology: internal organization of words--minimal meaning unit+word formation processes Syntax: interrelationships between elements in sentence structure(principles of forming&understanding correct English sentencesSemantics: the meaning of linguistic units (how meaning is encoded in a language Pragmatics: use of language in a context (meaning in contextInflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relationsDerivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a new wordConstative: statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable.Performative: sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Their function is to perform a particular speech act.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured.The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. + to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationshipamong linguistic elements.there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning.Componential analysisproposed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man”is analyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE]A sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate.An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance.A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context.The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent.For example...Argument：some entity about which a statement is being madePredicate: some property or relation to the entity。