[1] 罗舟. 土木工程制图教学方法探索与实践[J]. 中国建设教育, 2006本文从理论角度阐述教学方法与手段的指导思想,介绍了一些土木工程制图教学的方式方法,从实践角度说明教学方法与手段的重要性。

工程图样是工程技术人员表达技术思想的重要工具，也是工程技术部门交流技术经验的重要资料。

土木工程制图课程是培养绘制和阅读工程图样基本能力的技术基础课。

其主要任务就是帮助学生学习制图原理和绘制工程图方法，培养绘制和阅读工程图的基本能力及形象思维能力和严谨的治学态度，为后续课程的学习打下必要的基础。

依据学生的实际，运用高等教育学和教育心理学采取有针对性的教学方法。

大学生的学习生活可以看成是人生打基础的一个主要时期，土木工程制图在大学开设，大学生精力充沛，思想活跃、尊性强，胆大又自信，因此在教学中选择演示教学，电化教学习观法等直观教学，将使其教学效果显著。

[2] 杨建林. 土木工程专业建筑结构施工图学法初探[J]. 中国建设教育, 2008建筑结构施工图的识读是职业类院校土木工程系列专业学生识图的重点与难点,课改实践中,笔者通过心理减压、"规则"牵引和识图过程中的"求真务实"来引导学生形成良好的学习方法以达到较好的学习效果。

房屋建筑施工图一般包括三大部分：建筑施工图、结构施工图、水电暖设备施工图。

这三大类施工图中，结构施工图常常被许多学习者列为首要难题。

事实上，结构施工图关系到房屋的结构安全，地位重要，从业者不敢掉以轻心，某种程度上使学习者产生畏惧心理；同时结构施工图的绘图规则多、详图多、抗震构造要求多，这又使得不少学习者觉得结构施工图内容太多，节点太乱，有些无所适从。

开始接触一幢房屋的施工图，应优先通过建筑施工图建立该房屋的轮廓；房屋纵向柱距（开间）；横向柱距（跨度、深度）；层数；各层层高；楼梯数量及位置；屋顶形式；主次出入口的位置等方面着手。

[3] 赵军霞. 建筑结构施工图设计中常见问题及其剖析[J]. 科协论坛(下半月), 2007建筑结构施工图设计是目前基本建设中非常重要的环节。

本文将土建施工图存在的常见问题进行了归纳列举,分析了问题产生的原因及对工程项目建设的影响,并对土建施工图设计应遵循、注意的一些事项进行了阐述,供结构人员设计人员及管理借鉴、参考。

建筑结构设计时，应根据结构破坏可能产生的后果如：危及人的生命成经济损失、产生社会影响等的严重性，采用不同的安全等级，建筑的安全等级直接影响到承载力表达式中结构重要性系数γ的取值，所以必须在设计书中加以说明。

概念设计是建筑抗震设计的一个重要手段。

它对建筑提出了很多要求，比如规则性连续性要求；构筑多道结构抗震防线的要求，即要求结构具有良好的吸能、耗能能力，避免竖向承载力与刚度突变的要求，即避免地震时因塑性变形集中薄弱环节破坏而引起建筑整体倒塌；结构构件尽可能为延性构件的要求等等。

[4] 张科. 多层建筑结构设计中框架结构的问题分析与处理[J]. 科技资讯, 2008多层建筑框架结构设计是结构设计中较为基础的设计,也是建筑结构设计中较为重要的一种形式。

在设计时,如何处理各种不同的问题值得结构设计人员不断探讨和研究。

实际设计过程中,应根据相关规范作科学合理的设计,文章就建筑框架结构设计时常遇到的问题进行分析并探讨具体解决措施。

主要包括基础系梁的设置问题、框架结构薄弱层的判定与处理、楼板开大洞结构计算注意问题、框架梁柱偏心问题、短柱、部分计算参数的合理选用、应用平法图集须注意的问题、非结构构件设计等问题的概述和解决措施。

设计多层框架结构，设计人应首先判断结构方案的可行性，对可能碰到的问题提前采取措施予以解决，并对所有计算结构认真分析、判断，准确无误后方可应用于实际工程。

[5] 欧泽霖. 浅谈多层建筑结构设计中的几个问题[J]. 科技信息, 2009在我国，制图、设计有关方面的设计规范，具有一定的强制性就是要么照着规范去设计，要么就不符合不符合标准而不为大众所接受，这种现象就从根本上限制了设计人员创新立异的积极性。

在多数发达国家就完全相反，而只是将一些所谓的规范作为一定的指导、参考，如果个人参考对了属于正常现象，假如不幸错了、出问题还是需要自己承担的。

仅仅从这些方面，设计人员的设计心思就完全不一样,因为设计的东西无论好坏自己都要负全部责任，这样对个人责任感就有了更高的要求。

以以往的最小配筋率为例,国外规范中是0．8-1％，这个数值作为指导值是比较适宜的，而设计人员可以根据具体情况取用更低的配筋率。

本文结合工作实践对多层框架房屋结构设计中应注意的几个问题作出了分析。

如结构规范设计避免浪费、独立基础设计荷载取值问题、结构计算中几个重要参数的合理选取等问题进行分析。

[6]吕晓寅,吴萱. 混凝土结构设计系列课程的改革与实践[J]. 高等建筑教育, 2004混凝土结构设计系列课程作为土木工程专业的核心课程 ,具有理论性、实践性和综合性强等特点。

为保证人才的教育质量 ,近年来 ,我们就课程体系、教学内容、教学方法和教学手段进行了一系列的研究和改革 ,现已初见成效。

本文即是对各项实践经验的总结 ,以期进一步提高.混凝土房屋结构设计课程的教学内容包括多高层房屋和单层厂房的结构设计思想、各种结构形式的设计方法及构造要求等, 是学生毕业后从事房屋结构设计、施工、管理等技术工作所必备的专业基础。

预应力钢筋混凝土结构设计和混凝土结构加固与补强是混凝土房屋结构设计课程的拓展及补充。

利用现代化的教学手段, 可方便地将实际工程图纸搬进课堂( 在大屏幕上显示) , 对图纸中存在的问题进行分析、分析、讲解、培养和提高学生应用所学的知识解决实际工程问题的能力, 并使学生在解决问题的过程中进一步加深对基本概念和基本理论的理解。

[7] 梁兴文、史庆轩编著. 混凝土结构设计. 北京：科学出版社，2004本文主要从概论、楼盖和楼梯、单层工业厂房及框架结构设计等四方面展开阐述，课程内容侧重于五个方面：1、结构方案和结构体系的选择；2、确定计算简图；3、选择合适的结构分析方法；4、计算效应和作用效应等；5、构件截面积设计及构件间的连接构造设计。

建筑结构是房屋建筑的空间受力骨架体系，由竖向承重结构、水平承重结构和下部结构三部分组成。

混凝土结构是指以普通混凝土为主制作的结构，是土木建筑中应用最多的一种结构形式。

建筑结构设计是在可靠与经济之间选择一种平衡，房屋建筑工程可分为方案设计、初步设计、技术设计和施工图设计四个阶段。

混凝土结构设计中常用的计算方法有线弹性分析、考虑塑性内力重分布的分析方法、塑性极限分析方法、非线性分析方法和试验分析方法，应根据结构的重要性和使用要求、结构体系的特点、荷载（作用）状况、要求的计算精度等合理选择。

[8] 廖乐娟. 施工图设计文件中常见问题研究[J]. 江西理工大学学报, 2006当前建筑施工图设计文件中存在不少问题,应当引起有关部门重视。

施工图设计文件审查是指经建设行政主管部门批准成立的施工图计文件审查机构依照国家有关法律法规规范和技术标准对施工图设计文件中涉及结构安全公众利益及工程建设强制性标准等内容进行审查。

由于目前工程项目日趋复杂且设计周期又普遍偏短，造成施工图设计文件中存在许多问题。

例如：注册人员签字签章不全，施工图设计深度达不到建设部规定的要求，违反工程建设强制性标准等其中有些问题甚至可能造成重大工程质量隐患。

通过图审机构对施工图设计文件的审查，可以使一些重大的质量安全隐患在工程设计阶段得到消除，从源头上保证工程质量，并可通过图审机构出具的整改意见促进设计水平的提高。

[9]/ Civil engineering introduction papersThe civil engineering is a huge discipline, but the main one is building, building whether in China or abroad, has a long history, long-term development process. The world is changing every day, but the building also along with the progress of science and development.Civil engineering is built various projects collectively. It was meant to be and "military project" corresponding. In English the history of Civil Engineering, mechanical Engineering, electrical Engineering, chemical Engineering belong to Engineering, because they all have civil use. Later, as the project development of science and technology, mechanical, electrical, chemical has gradually formed independent scientific, to Engineering became Civil Engineering of specialized nouns. So far, in English, to Engineering include water conservancy project, port engineering, while in our country, water conservancy projects and portprojects also become very close and civil engineering relatively independent branch. Civil engineering construction of object, both refers to that built on the ground, underground water engineering facilities, also refers to applied materials equipment and conduct of the investigation, design and construction, maintenance, repair and other professional technology.Civil engineering with the progress of human society and development, yet has evolved into large-scale comprehensive discipline, it has out many branch, such as: architectural engineering, the railway engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, special engineering structure, water and wastewater engineering, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environment engineering disciplines.Civil engineering as an important basic disciplines, and has its important attributes of: integrated, sociality, practicality, unity. Civil engineering for the development of national economy and the improvement of people's life provides an important material and technical basis, for many industrial invigoration played a role in promoting, engineering construction is the formation of a fixed asset basic production process, therefore, construction and real estate become in many countries and regions, economic powerhouses.[10] /Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by contractors. While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a profit. Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction costs. This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time schedule. After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for construction. The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and services.A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building. The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor.Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a building. Such contractors are called prime contractors. Their work isscheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the owner.Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the homes.Administration of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on schedule. In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and construction.[11]/doi/abs/10.1139/l07-114 /Canadian Journal of civil engineeringBuilding construction concrete crack of prevention and processingThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure.Concrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material. Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality. The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Sheen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger. But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that theconcrete often say in the engineering. Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack. Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack; Have outside carry the crack that the function cause; Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect. Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work out a problem according to the actual circumstance.[12] /Reinforced ConcreteThe plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind,however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.。