第一章词的概述Exercises answerChapter 1Ⅵ.All the words belong to the native stock.Ⅴ1. from Danish2. from French3. from German4. from Latin5. from Italian6. from Spanish7. from Arabic8. from Chinese9. from Russian10. from Greek英语参考资料Chapter 1A General Survey of a WordⅠ. Definition of a wordAristotle defined a word as the smallest significant unit of speech - a definition which held sway until recently. Modern methods of analysis have discovered semantic units below the word level. A new term is therefore needed to denote the smallest significant element of speech; in contemporary linguistic theory it is known as a morpheme.Bloomfield distinguishes between two types of linguistic forms: free forms and bound forms. Free forms can stand by themselves and sometimes act as a complete utterance whereas bound forms cannot. For example, the word nicely contains the free form nice, and the bound form -ly. The former can occur as an independent unit and even as a sentence (What about the other film? - Nice). But the suffix -ly cannot stand by itself, to say nothing of acting as a complete utterance. According to Bloomfield, a word is a minimal free form.Lexicology deals by definition with words and wordforming morphemes, that is to say, with significant units. It follows that these elements must be investigated in their form and in their meaning.Therefore, from the lexicological point of view, a word is a combination of form (phonological) and meaning (lexical and grammatical). In addition, a word acts as a structural unit of a sentence.Ⅱ. Sound and meaningThe Naturalists have argued that the origin of language lies in onomatopoeia, that people began talking by creating iconic signs to imitate the sounds heard around them in nature. They maintain that there is a natural connection between sound and meaning. The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. Facts have proved this argument to be valid. Words that convey the same meaning have different phonological forms in different languages - for example, English meat / mi:t /,Chinese ròu. Alternatively, the same phonological forms may convey different meanings - for example, sight, site, cite.Ⅲ. Meaning and conceptMeaning is closely related to a concept. A concept is the base of the meaning of a word. A word is used to label a concept. It acts as the symbol for that concept. The concept is abstracted from the person, thing, relationship, idea, event, and so on, that we are thinking about. We call this the referent. The word labels the concept, which is abstracted from the referent; the word denotes the referent, but does not label it. This approach to meaning can be diagrammed as follows:word - concept - referentThe formula shows that the word refers to the referent through a concept.A concept is an abstraction from things of the same kind.When someone says "chair" to you, how do you know it is a chair? It is simply because it shows certain characteristics shared by all the objects you call chairs. You have abstracted these characteristics from your experience of chairs, and from what you have learned about chairs. From this it can be deduced that a concept refers to something in general, but not something in particular. A word, however, can refer to both, as is shown in the following two sentences:...some have begun to realize that the automobile is a mixed blessing.The automobile was stalled in a snowstorm.The word "automobile" in the first sentence refers to something in general whereas the word in the second sentence refers to a specific one.There are two aspects to the meaning of a word: denotation and connotation. The process by which the word refers to the referent is called"denotation". For example, the denotation of "dog" is "canine quadruped". The denotative meaning of a word usually refers to the dictionary definition of a word. As opposed to denotation, connotation refers to the emotional aspect of a word. For example, the connotation of "dog" might include "friend", "helper", "competition", etc.Ⅳ. Lexical item and vocabularyA unit of vocabulary is generally referred to as a lexical item.A complete inventory of the lexical items of a language constitutes that language's dictionary. In New Horizons in Linguistics, John Lyons points out that "Lexical items are often referred to, loosely, as words."The term vocabulary usually refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language. But it may also refer to the words and phrases used in the variants of a language, such as dialect, register, terminology, etc. The vocabulary can be divided into active vocabulary and passive vocabulary: the former refers to lexical items which a person uses; the latter to words which he understands.The English vocabulary is characterized by a mixture of native words and borrowed words. Most of the native words are of Anglo-Saxon origin. They form the basic word stock of the English language. In the native stock we find words denoting the commonest things necessary for life, natural phenomena, divisions of the year, parts of the body, animals, foodstuffs, trees, fruits, human activity and other words denoting the most indispensable things. The native stock also includes auxiliary and modal verbs, pronouns, most numerals, prepositions and conjunctions. Though small in number, these words play no small part in linguistic performance and communication.Borrowed words, usually known as loan-words, refer to linguistic forms taken over by one language or dialect from another.The English vocabulary has replenished itself by continually taking over words from other languages over the centuries. The adoption of foreign words into the English language began even before the English came to England. The Germanic people, of which the Angles and Saxons formed a part, had long before this event been in contact with the civilization of Rome. Words of Latin origin denoting objects belonging to that civilization (wine, butter, cheese, inch, mile, mint, etc.) gradually found their way into the English language.When the English were settled in England, they continued to borrow words from Latin, especially after Roman Christianity was introduced into the island in the sixth and seventh centuries. A considerable number of Latin words, chiefly signifying things connected with religion or the services of the church, were adopted into the English language. Among those which are still part of the language are bishop,candle, creed, font, mass, monk, priest and a great many others.To the Danes and Northmen the English vocabulary also owes a great deal. From these settlers, English adopted a surprising number of words of Scandinavian origin that belong to the core-vocabulary today: they (them, their), both, ill, die, egg, knife, low, skill, take, till, though, want, etc.The Norman Conquest in 1066 introduced a large number of French words into the English vocabulary. French adoptions were found in almost every section of the vocabulary: law (justice, evidence, pardon...), warfare (conquer, victory, archer...), religion (grace, repent, sacrifice...), architecture (castle, pillar, tower...), finance (pay, rent, ransom...), rank (baron, master, prince...), clothing (collar, mantle, vestment...), food (dinner, feast, sauce...) and many others. As an indication of the tremendous influx of French words, we may note that, discounting proper names, there are 39 words of French origin in the first 43 lines of the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.The revival of art and literature based on ancient Greek learning, known as the Renaissance in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, opened up a new source from which the English vocabulary could be enriched. English has borrowed many words from Greek through the medium of Latin and a smaller number direct, such as rhapsody, crisis, topic, pathos, stigma, coma, tonic, cosmos, dogma. From Greek also comes a wide range of learned affixes, such as bio-, chrono-, geo-, hydro-, logo-, auto-, hemi-, hetero-, homo-, mono-, neo-, epi-, meta-, para-, -ism, -ise, -logy, -graph, -phile, -meter, -gram and many others.From the sixteenth century onward, there was a great increase in the number of languages from which English adopted words. French continued to provide a considerable number of new words, for example, trophy, vase, moustache, unique, attic, soup. The Italian element was particularly strong in the fields of art, music and literature, for example, model, sonnet, opera, vista, soprano, quartet. There was also a Spanish element in English, for example, sherry, potato, cargo, parade, cigar. German, Portuguese and Dutch were also fertile sources of loan words, for example, dock, carouse, plunder, zinc, quarts (German); flamingo, cobra, caste, buffallo, pagoda (Portuguses); booze, wainscot, tackle, buoy, skipper, dock (Dutch).At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, with a growth of international trade and the urge to colonize and dominate the unknown world, English made a number of direct adoptions from languages spoken outside Europe. Some examples are: sultan, sheikh, ghoul, roc (Arabic); boomerang, billabong, wombat, dingo (Australian); lichi, sampan, typhoon, ketchup (Chinese); shibboleth, kibbutz (Hebrew); schmozze, schmaltz (Yiddish); shah, divan, shawl, caravan (Persian); caften, yoghourt, kiosk, bosh (Turkish); bwana, safari (Swahili); hara-kiri. tycoon, kamikaze,judo (Japanese); guru, pundit, swami, pukka (Hindustani); proa, amok, raffia, sarong (Indonesian); rouble, czar, troika, commissar (Russian).Since the end of the Second World War, still more loanwords have been incorporated into the English vocabulary, for example, haute cuisine, discotheque, engagé (French), sushi (Japanese); gulag, apparatchik (Russian); mao tai (Chinese); favela (Portuguese); autostrada (Italian); autopista (Spanish); hamam (Arabic) and many others.In the present century it should be observed that English has created many words out of Latin and Greek elements, especially in the fields of science and technology, such as aerodyne, ambivert, androgen, antibiotic, astronaut, auto-visual, autolysis, barysphere, cacogenics, callipyous, chromosome, cartology, cryotron, cyclorama, dendrochronology, dromophobia, hypnotherapy, hypothermia, isotope... Because the lexical sources of Latin and Greek are treated as if they belonged to English, many neologisms combine elements from different sources: aqualung, television, microgroove, sonobuoy, etc. Although all these Latin-and Greek-derived words are distinctly learned or technical, they do not seem foreign, and are very different in this respect from the recent loanwords from living languages, such as montage, angst, cappuccino, sputnik, etc. Thus, for the Modern English period a distinction must be made between the adoptions from living languages and the formations derived from the two classical languages.第二章词的结构和词的构成方式练习答案Chapter 2Ⅲ:astir = in motion; in excited activityawhir = whirringanti-Marketeer = an opponent of Great Britain's entry into the European Common Marketanti-theatre = the theatre that lacks most of the traditional features of the theatredeplane = get out of an airplane after it landsdenationalize = deprive...of national rights or statusdisambiguate = rid...of ambiguitydisadapt = make...unable to adaptecocide = the destruction of the earth's ecology through the uncontrolled use of pollutantsecocatastrophe = a catastrophe (a large-scale disaster) resulting from the uncontrolled use of pollutantsmegajet = a jet airplane larger and faster than a jumbo jet (a jet airplane with a passenger capacity of about 500 people and a freight capacity of about 200 tons)mini-budget = temporary budgetnon-committed = not revealing one's positionnonnovel = lacking the usual characteristics of a conventional noveloutsmart = overcome by cunning or clevernessoutheadline = outshine...by making the headlinessupersecret = top-secretsupertax = an additional taxⅣ.cinerama = a form of cinema film projected on a wide-curved screencircusama = a large-scale show of acrobats, trained animals, clownsmeritocrat = a member of a ruling class in society consisting of those who are most talented or have the highest intellect Eurocrat = a staff member of the administrative commission of the European Common Marketinterviewee = a person who is interviewedconferee = a person who participates in a conferenceescapee = a person who has escapedblackmailee = a person who is blackmailedracketeer = a person who obtains money illegallyrocketeer = an expert in rocketrysecond-guesser = a person who uses hindsight in criticizing or advising someonetopsider = a top-ranking personanchormanese = a style of language or diction used by an anchorman (a newscaster who coordinates the reports broadcast from various sources; a moderator of a discussion group as on radio or television)engineerese = the sublanguage used by engineers and techniciansJohnsonese = a style of language used by Johnsoncablese = a style of language peculiar to a telegramsmoketeria = a cigarette, cigar and pipe storeroadeteria = roadside restaurantChomskian = Chomsky'sWoolfian = a style of language used by Virginia Woolfhawkish = warlikenarrowish = somewhat narrowconsumerism = an economic policy that emphasizes consumption, the theory or practice of protecting consumers' interests nuclearism = emphasis on nuclear weapons as a deterrent to war or as a means of attaining political and social goalsgolfitis = addiction to or preoccupation with golfprofessoritis = obsession with the idea of becoming a professor beatnik = one of the Beat Generation (-nik meaning a person who does or is connected with something)protestnik = a person who protests against conventions and traditional valuesdopester = a person who analyses or predicts trends as in politics or sportshuckster = a person who is engaged in advertising, esp. for radio and televisionfigurewise = in terms of figuresweatherwise = in terms of weather, skilled in predicting weatherⅤ.soap suds = suds produced by soapmosquito net = net used for protection against mosquitoesfire squad = squad which prevents the spread of a firefertility site = site which induces fertilityinfluenza virus = virus which causes influenzabattle fatigue = fatigue caused by a battlebrick mason = a person who lays brick or stoneguest conductor = corductor who appears or performs on a program by special invitationinterceptor plane = a fast-climbing military airplane used in fighting off attacks by enemy planesejector seat = a seat designed to be ejected with its occupant from an airplane in an emergency, another expression for ejection seat donor blood = donors' bloodvoter enthusiasm = voters' enthusiasmsurface vessel = vessel which moves on the surfacerecovery helicopter = helicopter used for getting back (recovering) astronauts who have splashed downinvestment money = money set apart for investmentrejection slip = a form or note from a publisher, rejecting a work submitted for possible publicationexport reject = something that has been rejected by export standardsⅥ.1. relief organization = organization of relief work2. feasibility study = a study to determine the feasibility ofa project or program3. gifts conspiracy = the act of working together secretly to use gifts as bribes4. smut hounds = censors with eyes for pornsⅦ.1. doctored = applied medicine to2. was telescoped = became shorter by crushing with one part sliding over another3. mandate a solution = work out a solution by issuing an authoritative order4. cataloguing = making a catalogue of; indexing = making an index of5. a repeat = a rebroadcast6. transplants = instances of transplanting7. the quaint = something quaint; the picturesque = something picturesque8. the condemned = the person who has been convicted9. moderns = modern painters10. heavies = big shots11. drearies = makes dreary (dull)12. broad-brushing = describing in broad outlineⅧ.donate ＜ donation helicopt ＜ helicopterautomate ＜ automation spring-clean ＜ spring-cleaningpettifog ＜ pettifogger sight-read ＜ sight-readingenthuse ＜ enthusiasm chain-react ＜ chain reactionⅨ.slurb: slum + suburb （城郊贫民区）educrat: education + bureaucrat （教育机构的官员或代表）Airveyor: air + conveyor （气压输送器）Glideriter: glide + writer （滑写笔）programmatic: program + automatic（能自动安排程序和计划的）narcoma: narcotic + coma （用麻醉剂引起的昏睡）slumlord: slum + landlord （贫民区房地产主）slurch: slink + lurch （鬼鬼祟祟地徘徊）reprography: reproduction + photography （原稿[如手稿或有版权的资料]影印本）mascon: mass + concentration （质量密集，指月球表面下层高密度物质的集中）glassphalt: glass + asphalt （作辅路用的玻璃颗粒物）peekture: peek + picture （色情影片）Ⅹ.EEC = European Economic CommunityOPEC = Organization of Petroleum Exporting CountriesSLAM = supersonic low altitude missile; strategic low altitude missileEDVAC = electronic discrete variable automatic computerGEM = ground effect machineNSC = National Security CouncilERDA = Energy Research and Development Administrationdyno = dynamicaggro = aggressivenesschute = parachutepro = professionalmemo = memorandumfridge = refrigeratornarc = narcotic agent or detectivefrag = fragmentation grenadefrat = fraternityⅪ.1. super = supermarket （自动售货商场）2. the Feds = Federal Agencies （美国各联邦机构）3. State = the State Department （美国国务院）4. Defense = the Defense Department （美国国防部）5. the Hill = Capitol Hill （指美国国会）6. the Penta = the Pentagon （美国五角大楼，指美国国防部的办公大楼，泛指美国国防部）英语参考资料Chapter 2Morphological Structure and Word-FormationⅠ. The component parts of a wordAs has been stated earlier, a morpheme is the minimal significant element. It is also the smallest unit of grammatical analysis. It can have or show a grammatical function. For example, -s shows plural in cats, locks and hopes; -ment shows noun form in movement, establishment and atonement; -ed shows past tense in walked, showed, tried.Words are composed of morphemes. Some words are formed by one morpheme, such as log, clerk, soldier, and others are formed by two ormore morphemes, such as lovely (love + -ly), unacceptable (un-, accept, -able).Ⅱ. Content morphemes, grammatical morphemes and allomorphsContent morphemes known as free morphems are those that may constitute words by themselves: cat, walk, kind, teach. Grammatical morphemes known as bound morphems are those that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free: cat + s, walk + ing, un + kind, teach + er. Sometimes words consist of two content morphems: lighthouse, housework.Grammatical morphemes may also be called affixes; affixes are segments that are added to a root. In English, this root is usually a free morpheme - for example, the word "acceptable" is formed by root accept and adjective marker -able. But in some cases this root is a bound morpheme - for example, the word "audience" consists of bound root audi- and noun marker -ence.Many morphemes have semantic meaning attached to them. Certainly all free morphemes do: dog, horse, room, house. Bound morphemes, however, may not. The plural marker -s and the past tense marker -d/-ed by themselves have no semantic meaning, they contain only grammatical meaning. The same applies to the suffixestion and -ise: -tion may be used to form a noun and -ise to form a verb.According to Stephem Ullmann, words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words: axe, glove. Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable (work + -able), doorman (door + man).A morpheme is a linguistic abstraction; it is a concept. It needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographical forms. These forms are called morphs. It can be found that the same functional unit varies in form from one context to another: thus the terminal -(e)s of cats, dogs, horses has the regular meaning "more than one", yet has three different phonological forms: /-s, -z, -iz/. The three forms are the variants of the same morpheme -s. They are called allomorphs.Ⅲ. Methods of word-formation1. AffixationThe process by which words are formed by adding affixes to a root is called affixation. English affixes can be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Affixes that come before the root are called prefixes; those that come after the root are called suffixes. Most prefixes, when added to words, effect a change in meaning, but without converting oneword-class to another (natural - unnatural, like - dislike). Some prefixeshave the effect of converting one word-class to another (force - enforce, rich - enrich). Some suffixes, when added to words, can transform one word-class into another (laugh - laughable, willing - willingness); others merely modify without converting (cartoon - cartoonist, stat - starlet).Some of the most important productive prefixes are; anti- (anti-war, anti-European, anti-hero, anti-novel); de- (deplane, detrain, debug, deemphasize); dis- (disincentive, disbenefit, disinflation, disambiguate); mini- (miniskirt. miniboom); non- (nonaddict, nonnovel); out- (outsmart, outheadline); pre- (predigest, prenatal); re- (rethink, repaper); un- (unconventional, unrich, unperson, unbook).Some of the most productive suffixes are: -able (available, favourable); -age (breakage, shrinkage); -crat (technocrat, Eurocrat); -ee (interviewee, evacuee, retiree, escapee); -eer (racketeer, profiteer); -er (footballer, preschooler, second-guesser, marathoner); -ese (Johnsonese, Carlylese, engineerese, anchormanese); -ian (Dickensian, Chomskian); -ish (dovish, hawkish); -ism (computerism, consumerism); -ize (finalize, denuclearize), -itis (golfitis, jazzitis); -nik (beatnik, protestnik); -wise (weatherwise, figurewise); -y (tasty, splashy, goosey, brainy).2. ConversionConversion means using a form that represents one part of speech as another part of speech without changing the form of the word. In effect, a zero affix is added: for example, someone who knows he can say "The lights gleam in the night", uses "gleam" as a noun as in a sentence like "I can see the gleam in the night." A similar process may create verbs out of adjectives: "I made thy desk clean" - "I cleaned the desk" and nouns out of verbs:" I looked out of the window" - "I took a look out of the window." The process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zeroderivation.3. Compounding (Composition)Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. Words formed by compounding are called compounds. Compounds must be carefully distinguished from free phrases. The former typically have a single stress (a 'greenhouse) whereas the latter have a two-stress pattern of a normal syntactic group (a 'green 'house). A compound occurs as an inseparable semantic unit that differs in meaning from a free phrase. A greenhouse means "a building made of glass, in which the temperature and humidity can be regulated for the cultivation of delicate or out-of-season plants". and the colour of the greenhouse is not necessarily green. A compound does not allow modification of the first element as a free phrase does (a very green house). In other words, no adverb can be used to modify the first element of a compound. The first element of a compound is not allowed tobe turned into an adjective in the comparative degree, but this rule does not apply to a free phrase (a greener house).4. Back-formationBack-formation is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. It is also known as a reverse derivation. This means that a derived form has preceded the word from which (formally speaking) it is derived. Thus editor entered the language before edit, automation before automate, enthusiasm before enthuse.5. Abbreviation (Shortening)A. Clipped wordsClipped words are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. The shortening may occur at the beginning of the word (telephone → phone, helicopter → copter); at the end of the word (modern → mod, professional → pro); at both ends of the word (detective → tec, refrigerator → fridge). The clippe d form is normally regarded as informal.B. InitialismsInitialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters: IMF / 'ai em 'ef / = International Monetary Fund; IOC / 'ai au 'si: / = International Olympic Committee; C.O.D. / 'si: au 'di: / = cash on delivery.C. AcronymsAcronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words: NATO / 'neitau / = North Atlantic Treaty Organization; SALT / so:lt / = Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.6. BlendingAnother source of word formation which creates a word by combining parts of other words is called blending: smog, brunch, twirl, smaze, chortle, sprig. Each of these is made up of the first part of one word and the second part of another: smoke + fog = smog; breakfast + lunch = brunch; twist + whirl = twirl; smoke + haze = smaze; chuckle + snort = chortle. Words formed by blending are known as blends or portmanteaus.Blends are popularly supposed to have originated with Lewis Carroll, but the word "gingerly" goes all the way back to "ginger" crossed with Middle English "genitor", akin to "gentle" and "genteel". Blends originally occurred as humourous coinages. But with the passage of time, blending has become one of the important processes of word-formation and provided a considerable number of new words for contemporary English: carbecue (car + barbecue); plugola (plug + payola); memcon (memorandum + conversation); comsat (communications + satellite); mascon (mass + concentration); helicox (helium + oxygen); stagflation, (stagnation + inflation); reprography (reproduction + photography) and many others.。