Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1 什么是语言学 what is linguistics?1.1 定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2 语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of lingu istics called phonetics. 语音学phoneticsHow speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology 音位学/ 音系学phonology交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the bran ch of study calledmorphology. 形态学morphologyhow morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
e. The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rulesconstitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法学syntaxhow morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.f. The study of meaning. semantics 语义学 (in abstraction) semanticsg. the study of meaning is conducted in context of use. pragmatics语用学pragmaticsh. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics. 社会语言学sociolinguisticsi. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心理语言学psycholinguisticsj. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied lingui stics 应用语言学applied linguistics1.3 语言学研究中的一些基本概念 some important distinctions in linguistics.1.3.1 规定性和描述性 prescriptive vs. descriptiveif a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析——描述性的descriptiveif it aims at to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour to tell people what they should say and what they should not say 如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制定一些规则——规定性的prescriptive现代语言学通常是描述性的，与“语法”的语言研究是大相径庭的1.3.2 共时性和历时性 synchronic vs. diachronicthe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更受人青睐。
1.3.3 口头语和书面语 speech and writingSpeech and writing are two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken la nguage as primary, not the written.In the past, traditional grammarians tended to overemphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.1.3.4 语言和言语 langue and parole (both from French words)瑞士语言学家F. de索绪尔langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the member of a speech community. 语言，某一特定的语言社区中的所有成员所共有的那种抽象的语言系统；parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 言语，在语言实际应用中的具体体现。
语言——习惯和规则；言语——对这些习惯和规则的遵守和实际应用言语不过是一些乱七八糟的语言材料，很难对此作系统的研究；语言学家们的任务是从言语中把语言提取出来，发现指导语言实际应用的规则，并使之成为语言学研究的主题。
1.3.5 语言能力和语言运用 competence and performance 美国语言学家-乔姆斯基（和语言，言语类似的概念）competence, the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language 能力是一个理想的语言使用者所具有的有关其所使用语言规则的知识；performance, the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 运用则指这种知识在语言交际过程中的实际运用。
Langue and parole索绪尔对语言的研究采取的是社会学的观点，语言是社会习惯的产物；Competence and performance 乔姆斯基则从心理学的角度来审视语言现象，能力是每个说话者个体的心里特征。
2 什么是语言？ what is language?2.1 语言的定义 definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是用于人类交际目的一套任意的有声符号系统。
有以下四个特征：(1) language is a system (2) language is arbitrary (3) language is vocal (4) language is human specific2.2 语言的甄别性特征 design features甄别性特征（识别性特征）—人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的那些特征，其中五种：a. 语言的任意性（武断性）arbitrarinessb. 语言的创造性 productivityc. 语言的双重性 dualityd. 语言的位移性 displacemente. 语言的文化传递性 cultural transmissionChapter 2 Phonology音系学1 语言的声音媒介 the phonic medium of language口语和书面语是语言作为交际工具所使用的两大主要媒介和物质手段；口语比书面语更为基本；对于语言学家而言，对声音的研究远远比对书面语的研究重要得多，只关注人类器官发出的声音。
2 语音学 phonetics2.1 什么是语音学 what is phoneticsphonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; 对语言声音媒介的研究；主要研究对象是世界上所有的语言中出现过的一切声音从三个角度来审视语音现象：(1) 发音语音学 articulatory phonetics（from the speaker’s point of view）how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds(2) 听觉语音学 auditory phonetics（from the hearer’s point of view）how the sounds are perceived by the hearer(3) 声学语音学 acoustic phoneticsIt studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another以上三个分支里，建立历史最长，发展最完善的就是发音语音学。