Chapter I1.Linguistics is usually defined as the science study of language2.what are major branches of linguistics?Phonetics----it studies the sounds used in linguistics communication.Phonology---it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey the meaning in communication.Morphology---it studies the way in which linguistic symbol representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax-------it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentence in languages.Semantics---it studies meaning convey by language.Pragmatics---it studies the meaning in the context of language use.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?（1）descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):describe and analyze the language people actually use.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): laying down rules for “correct and standard”behaviour in using language.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”（2）synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)（3）speech and writingSpeech is prior to writing（4）langue & parole;Langue: (语言) the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.Parole: (话语) the realization of langue in actual use.（5）competence and performance.Competence:(语言能力.)he ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance:(语言运用.)the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.（6）traditional grammar and modern linguisticTraditional grammar prescriptive：tend to emphasize the importance of written word：force language into Latin-base framework.Modern linguistic description；spoken language as primarynguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.6.Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递7. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them. 1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能Chapter 2 Phonology1. Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language.2. Three branches of phoneticsArticulatory发音语音学speaker’s point of viewsAuditory-听觉语音学hear’s point of viewsAcoustic-声学语音学sound waves3. broad transcription: 宽式标音the transcriptions with letter-symbols onlynarrow transcription 窄式标音the transcriptions with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 4.phonology 音位学and phonetics语音学are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.what’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.6.音位对立Phone contrast: phonemic similar sounds might be related in two ways, if they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to be phone contrast.7.互补分布complementary distribution P35Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.8.最小对立对Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.9.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress重音,intonation语调and tone音调.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)closed-class words：few new words are added. e.g. pron., prep., conj., article.open-class words：new words can be added regularly e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.2.Morpheme 词素：The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.3.Free Morpheme ：A morpheme can be a word by itself.4.Bound morphemes ：A morpheme that must be attached to another one.5.allomorph词素变体：The variant forms of a morpheme6.Inflectional morpheme屈折词素:they are attached to words or morphemes，but they never change their syntactic category.7.Derivational morpheme派生词素:when they are conjoined to other morphemes, new words are derived,or formed.pound: stringing word together1)same grammatical category2)the second or final word will be grammatical category3)stress on the noun the adjective qualifies.4)not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Chapter 4 Syntax1.Syntax: it studied of the rules govern the formation of sentencesXP rule: the XP rule: XP— (specifier 标志语)X(complement补语)Chapter 5 Semantics2.概念论The conceptualist view It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论Conceptualism J.R.Firth It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论Behaviorism It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.5. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.6.Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects: Sense：inherent meaning of linguistics form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.Reference：in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference;4) A certain reference can be expressed by more than one sense7.同义词Synonymy: It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning.1)dialectal synonyms 方言同义词——synonyms used in different regional dialect2)stylistic synonyms 文体同义词——synonyms differing in style3)synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)collocational synonyms 搭配同义词5)semantically different synonyms8.多义词Polysemy：It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.9.同音(形)异义Homonymy：It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.1）同音异义Homophones：It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.2）同形异义Homographs：It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.10.上下义关系Hyponymy：It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Superordinate坐标词the word which is more general in meaning ,Hyponyms 下义词the more specific words11.反义词Antonymy：It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimen sion.1）gradable antonymy 级差反义词a matter of degree2）complementary antonymy 互补相反词a matter of either one or the other3）relational antonymy 关系反义词the reversal of a relationship12. Sense relations between sentences1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不一致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction 自相矛盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常ponential relations（成分分析）——a way to analyze lexical meaning Componential relations：It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.semantic features：this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分Pragmatics is study of how speaker of a language use sentence to effect successful communication. Difference：whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.2.Sentence meaning与Utterance meaning的区别Sentence meaning---abstract, decontextualized.Utterance meaning---concrete, contextualized it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.3.言语行为理论Speech act theory It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’sa philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?”Austins model of speech acts叙述句Constatives :Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.;行为句Performatives :Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.言内行为Locutionary Act:the act of utt ering words, phrases ,clauses. it’s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.言外行为Illocutionary Act:the act of expressing the speaker’s intention it’s the act performed in saying something.言后行为Perlocutionary Act:the act performed by or resulting from saying something. it’s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.4. Indirect speech acts: primary speech act(the goal of communication) , secondary speechact(the means by which he achieves his goal)5.会话原则Principle of conversation Paul Grice合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle1.数量the maxim of Quantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求Make your contribution as informative as required;Do not make your contribution more informative than is required2.质量the maxim of Quality -----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话Do not say what you believe to false.Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence3.关系the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关Be relevant4.方式the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;Be brief/be orderly.Chapter7 Language change1.lexical change:1) addition of new wordsCoinage创新词; clipped words缩略词; blending紧缩法; acronyms词首字母缩略词; back-formation逆构词法; functional shift功能转换；borrowing借用;2) loss of words词的废弃3) semantic changes语义的变化A. semantic broadening词义的扩大:holiday-holy day-any rest day, tail-horse-any animalB. semantic narrowing意义的缩小deer-any animal-a particular kind of animal meat - food-edible part of an animal, corn-grain-a particular grainC. semantic shift意义转换:silly-happy-naive-foolishChapter8 Language and society1.The relationship between language and culture ：1) Language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintainsocial relationship.2) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the socialenvironments of a society.3) The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background.4) The way people talk is influenced by the social context in which they are talking. It matterswho can hear us and where we are talking as well as how we are feeling. We use different styles in different social contexts.2. speech community语言社区: The social group that is singled out for any special study.Speech Variety言语变体: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.3.Dialectal varieties方言变体1) Regional地域方言:a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.2)Sociolect社会方言 a language variety caused by different social conditions3）Language and Gender:Language used by men and women have some special features of their own. Women and men often have slightly different "grammars" at many different levels.4）Language and age: In many communities the language used by the old generation differs from that used by the younger generation in certain ways. Their speech is thus a record of the never-ending change of language5）Idiolect : Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. In a narrower sense, it also includes voice quality, pitch音高，speech tempo语速and rhythm.6）Ethnic dialect: An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation4.语域Register :A functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.5. Degree of formality•frozen style(庄严语体)My beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward.•formal style(正式语体)My dear father has just expired.•consultative style(询问语体)My father has just passed away.•casual style(随意语体)My dad has died.•intimate style(亲密语体)My old man just kicked the bucket.6.标准语Standard Language :A superposed prestigious variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.7.Pidgin (洋泾浜语) :A pidgin is a language variety that mixes languages and it is developed for some practical purpose, such as trading, among groups of people who had a lot of contact, but who did not know each other’s languages.Feature:①Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages.②Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very simplified grammatical structure,with inflections, gender and case being lost.Chapter 9 language and culture1.the relationship between language and culture1)The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background,e.g. the word “dog”.2)Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.3)The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.4)Culture also affects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.5)language as an integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.2. Two important insights of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说：1)There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.2)More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.3. the significance of culture teaching and learningLanguage as the keystone is tightly intertwined with culture. Learning a language is inseparable from learning its culture. We need to learn enough about the language's culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the linguistic competence but also the pragmatic or communicative competence as well. This is of great significance in learning a foreign or second languageChapter 10 Language Acquisitionnguage environment & the critical period hypothesis 语言环境和临界期假说:1) Two important factors: the linguistic environment children are exposed to and the age they start to learn the language.2) In behaviorist approach, language environment plays a major role in providing both language models to be imitated and necessary feedbacks.3) The innatist view emphasizes more on children’s internal processing of the language items to be learnt. The environment functions as a stimulus that triggers and activates the pre-equipped UG to process the materials provided by the linguistic environment around the children.4) The interactionist view calls for the quality of the language samples available in the linguistic environment, only when the language is modified and adjusted to the level of children’s comprehension, do they process and internalize the language items.2.对比分析Contrastive Analysis : It refers to a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner’s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the effects of interference.3. Main points of Contrastive Analysis:1)Main source of errors in L2 due to the transfer of L1 habits2)Errors can be predicted by a contrastive analysis of the L1 and L23)The greater the difference between L1 and L2, the more errors that will occur4.Interlanguage中介语---- learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language.1）The type of language produced by second- and foreign- language learners who are in the process of learning a language.2）Fossilization: a process in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.。