第一章（判）Language is only a means of communication.（F）Language has a form-meaning correspondence.(F)The function of language is to exchange information.(F)English is more difficult to learn than Chinese.(F)Black English is not standard and should be reformed.(F)The following are some fundamental views about language.判）Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.(T)Language operates by rules.(T)All languages have three major components: a sound system语音系统, a system of lexicogrammar词汇语法 and a system of semantics语意学.(T)Everyone speaks a dialect.(T)Language slowly changes.(T)Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons行话.(T) Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.(T) Writing is derivative 来源的of speech.(T)Language is a means of verbal communication.分析）P3)it is instrumental in that communication by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features.(1)Arbitrariness任意性分析，以下三点瑞士Saussure（现代语言学之父）: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning . (定义)(1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme词素and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic拟声的 words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2）Arbitrariness at the syntactic句法的level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.（判）By syntax that sentences are constructed to the grammar of arrangement3）Arbitrariness and convention. Conventionality 规约性T he link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.Conventionality , as learners of English we are often told “this is an idiom”—meaning it is conventional to say things this way and you cannot change the expression any other way even if you think it does not look or sound logical.(2)Duality 双重性定义/单By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level(3)Creativity 创造性定义/填Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness递归性. (4)Displacement 移位性定义Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.And one thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.单Functions of languageFor Jakobson, language is above all for communication.In his famous article, Linguistics and Poetics, he defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely:speaker, addressee, context, message, code元语言解码, contact.Six key elements of communication,namely:referential (to convey message and information),Poetic诗学 (to indulge in language for its own sake),emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),conative意动(to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic寒暄(to establish communion with others)Metalingual funcation (to clear up intentions and meanings).Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational概念功能, interpersonal 人际功能and textual 语篇功能functions.填(1)Informative function最重要For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language.判The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language.(2)Interpersonal functionBy far the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.(3)Performative function施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing ofchildren, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. For example, sui sui ping an(4)Emotive functionExpressive function(5)Phatic communion 寒暄功能书上的例句选择(6)Recreational function 娱乐功能the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, s uch as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.(7)Metalingual function 源语言填空Our language can be used to talk about itself.What is Linguistics?The scientific study of human languageMain branches of linguistics 定义/填空/大题Phonetics 语音学Phonology 音系学Morphology 形态学Syntax 句法学Semantics 语义学Pragmatics 语用学Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.We can approach it on various levels.At one level, speech is a matter of anatomy 解剖学and physiology生理学. We can study organs such as tongue and larynx and their functions in the production of speech.At another level, we can focus on the speech sounds produced by these organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds. This is the domain of articulatory phonetics发音语言学.We can also investigate the properties of the sound waves —acoustic phonetics声学语言学.As speech is intended to be heard or perceived, it is therefore possible to focus on the way in which a listener analyses or processes a sound wave —auditory phonetics听觉语言学.Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes. Morphemes serve different purposes.Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. Psycholinguistics 心理语言学单Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition.❖SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述❖Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. The structure of Shakespeare English❖Langue & parole 区别Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole.❖Competence and performanceThis fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965).A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations第二章Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.定义Three main areas:Articulatory phonetics: studies the production of speech sounds;Acoustic phonetics: studies the physical properties of speech sounds;Auditory phonetics: studies the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language.单Speech Organs 发音器官定义/填空=Vocal organs: parts of human body involved in the production of speechVocal tract, oral cavity口腔, nasal cavity鼻腔Vocal folds 声带apart: voiceless sounds [p, s, t]Close together: voiced sounds [b, z, d]Totally closed：glottal stop 声门塞音The IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet国际音标表格The idea was first proposed by the Danish grammarian Jespersen in 1886.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was revised in 2005.Consonants and VowelsConsonants: produced by a closure接近 in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.Vowels: produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through mouth or nose.Distinction between C and V: Obstruction of airstream气流是否受阻单/填空The Sounds of EnglishRP vs GATeaching of English as a foreign language, it is referred to as received pronunciation(RP)In the USA, the widely accepted accent used by most educated speakers is often referred to as general American(GA)Consonants:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricativeP36 The description of vowels:The height of tongue raising （high, mid, low）The position of the highest part of tongue (front, central, back)The length or tenseness of the vowel(tense, lax)Lip-rounding (rounded & unrounded)Vowels[iː] high front tense unrounded vowel[ʊ] high back lax rounded vowel[ə] mid central lax unrounded vowel[ɒ] low back lax rounded vowel[e] mid front lax unrounded vowelCoarticulation 协同发音定义P37When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process CoarticulationBroad transcriptionNarrow transcriptionAllophones 音位变体P40Peak /speakA process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.P45Elsewhere condition 剩余条件规则定义The more specific rule applies first. 较为特殊的规则应用在先Distinctive featuresThe idea of Distinctive features was first developed by Roman Jacobson Suprasegmentals 超音段Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are stress, tone and intonation.The syllable structure 音节理解P47A syllable must have a nucleus核心节 or peak节峰, which is often the task of a vowel第三章Morpheme and morphology定义Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.The systematic study of morpheme is a breach of linguistics called morphology, which investigates the internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.Types of morphemesRoot affix stem(P53)Inflectional affix and derivational affix简答P54le ss productive grammatical function e.g. toys, walks, John’smore productive form new wordse.g. receive, reception, receptionistdo not change the word class of the wordmight change the word classdepend on other factors within a phrase or a sentencedepend on the meaning we want to expressin most cases suffixesprefixes/suffixesWord1)Stability2)Relative uninterruptibility相对联系3)A minimun free formClassification of words1)variable and invariable words可变化和非变化词2)Grammatical words and lexical words语法词和词汇词Grammatical/Function words:功能词conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.Lexical/Content words:实义词nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.3) Closed-class words and open-class words封闭类词和开放类词Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be addede.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class words: New members can be added; membership is infinite or unlimitede.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.4)Word classWord formation(1) 看PPTWord formation(2): lexical changeInvention 发明法Blending 混成法举例/定义Blending is a process in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.smog烟雾(smoke+fog); boatel水上旅馆(boat+hotel); brunch早午餐(breakfast+lunch); telecastAbbreviation 缩写词(clipping 截断法)A new word is created by the following methodsCutting the final part: fanatic(fan), advertisement(ad)Cutting the initial part: aeroplane(plane), omnibus(bus)Cutting both the initial part and final parts accordingly: influenza(flu), refrigerator(fridge)Acronym 首字母缩略词Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.Eg: CIA, EEC, WTO, UNESCOThis process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology, and other special fields.Eg: AIDS, SARS, Radar, VATBackformation 逆构词法定义An abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. Analogical creation 类推构词Class shift 词类转换Borrowing 借词PPTGreek: electricity, atomFrench: entail, mortgageSpanish: macho, grandeeLatin: adjacent, inferiorGerman: quartz, plunder第四章Syntax 句法学 P17Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.或者Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Syntactic relations 句法关系单P73单Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds: positional relations 位置关系 relations of substitutability 替代关系 relations of co-occurrence 同现关系Positional relation 位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.Relation of substitutability可替换性关系Grammatical construction语法结构P75Immediate constituents直接成分Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit.IC analysis 直接成分分析法Tree diagram要求会画树形图P77Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions向心结构和离心结构单Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric typesExocentric ：the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate (verb + object) construction, the connective (be + complement) construction.Predicate 谓语除主语之外的其他所有成分，谓语通常表达主语的动作，过程和状态Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.Category 范畴单Number 数Gender 性Case 格Agreement 一致关系单This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent,Recursiveness 递归性Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category.Recursiveness also includes several phenomena such as coordination and subordination, conjoining 连接and embedding嵌入, hypotactic and paratactic.判第五章Semantics 语义学The subject concerning the study of meaning 研究意义的学科Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Meanings of “meaning”Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of MeaningSeven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning概念意义Associative meaning 联想意义Connotative meaning内含意义Social meaning社会意义Affective meaning情感意义Reflected meaning反射意义Collocative meaning搭配意义Thematic meaning主位意义The referential theory 指称论The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.Words → Meaning: Words ‘name’ or ‘refer to’ things -- PlatonicAnd that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept(概念）.Sense relations PPT单Synonymy同义词buy/purchaseworld/ universebrotherly/ fraternalAntonymy 反义词1.Gradable antonyms 等级反义词hot Vs. cold2. Complementary antonyms 互补反义词male Vs. female3.Converse antonymy 反向反义词teacher Vs. pupilHyponymy 上下意义关系PPT后的选择题1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?CA. Language is a system.B. Language is symbolic.C. Animals also have languages.D. Language is arbitrary.2. Arbitrariness of language was first discussed by ___D___.A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. FirthD. Saussure3. Which function is the major role of language?AA. InformativeB. InterpersonalC. PerformativeD. Emotive4. Which branch of study cannot be included in the scope of linguistics?DA. SyntaxB. PragmaticsC. PhoneticsD. Anthropology5. What are the dual structures of language?BA. Sounds and lettersB. Sounds and meaningC. Letters and meaningD. Sounds and symbols6. Productivity is one of the _____ features of languages.BA. distinctiveB. designC. SuprasegmentalD. pragmatic7. The function of the sentence “Lovely weather, isn’t it?” is _B____.A. informativeB. phaticC. performativeD. recreational8. Once the notion of __B__ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content9. Which of the following is NOT the function of language?DA. Metalingual functionB. Interpersonal functionC. Emotive functionD. Cultural transmission10. _A___ investigates the interrelation of language and mind.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Anthropological linguisticsD. Computational linguistics11. The following about language are wrong EXCEPT _A____. (大外，11年)A. Language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural context.B. Language has a form-sound correspondence.C. Language is a means of communication.D. Language is not related to any of the individuals who use it.12. Verbal dueling, the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, is mainly to do with the _B___ function of language. (武汉大学11)A. performativeB. interpersonalC. informativeD. recreational13. “I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of _B__. (天外11)A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement14. _A___ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. (天外11)A. LangueB. CompetenceC. Communicative competenceD. Linguistic potential15. _B___ has been widely accepted as the father of modern linguistics. (天外12)A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. Halliday1. Which of the following is the most important function of languge?CA. Interpersonal functionB. Performative functionC. Informative functionD. Recreational function2. _C__ function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.A. PerformativeB. InterpersonalC. PhaticD. Metalingual3. _C__ refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.A. CompetenceB. PerformanceC. EloquenceD. Action4. _B___ is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Anthropological linguisticsD. Computational linguistics5. The sentence “Close your textbook and listen to me carefully!” performs a(n) _D___ function.A. InterrogativeB. informativeC. PerformativeD. directive6. C___ is defined as the study of the relationship between language and mind.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. Cognitive linguisticsD. Sociolinguistics7. A___ refers to the learning and development of a language.A. Language acquisitionB. Language comprehensionC. Language productionD. Language instruction8. Language is a tool of communication. The symbol “ Highway closed” on a highway serves __B__.A. An expressive functionB. an informative functionC. A performative functionD. a persuasive function9. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language?DA. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Diachronicity10. The distinction between parole and langue was made by___D__.A. HallidayB. ChomskyC. BloomfieldD. Saussure1.All syllables contain a __A___. （北二外）A. nucleusB. codaC. onset2.A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language is ___C__. （北二外）A. allophoneB. phoneC. phoneme3.__D___ is one of the suprasegmental features.A. stopB. voicingC. deletionD. tone（东南）4.Which of the following consonants does not exist in English? （东南）AA. dental stopB. bilabial stopC. alveolar stopD. velar stop5.Of the following sound combinations, only _A___ is permissible.A. kiblB. bkilC. ilkbD. ilbk6.Which pair of words is NOT a minimal pair?BA. cat/batB. put/butC. jig/pigD. sit/bit7.If two sounds are in complementary distribution, they are __B__ of the same phoneme.A. symbolsB. allophonesC. phonesD. signs8.Where are the vocal cords?DA. in the mouthB. in the nasal cavityC. above the tongueD. inside the larynx9._B___ studies the sound systems in a certain language.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Syntax10.Distinctive features are used to describe _D___.A. phonesB. phonologyC. allophonesD. phonemes11.In the production of consonants at least __B__ articulator(s) are involved.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four12.Voiceless sounds are produced when the vocal folds are B____.A. closedB. apartC. totally closedD. completely open13.__C__ involve more than one manners of articulation.A. StopsB. FricativesC. AffricatesD. Laterals14.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in _B___.A. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of airstreamsC. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lips1. __C__ are bound morphemes because they can not be used as separate words.A. RootsB. StemsC. AffixesD. Compounds2. __C__ is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content.A. RootB. AllomorphC. MorphemeD. Word3. The English word “untouchable” is composed of _B___ morphemes.A. fourB. threeC. twoD. five4. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?BA. pencil boxB. unreasonableC. deadlineD. upstairs5. When the suffix _A__ is added to a verb, it changes this verb into an adjective.A. lessB. nessC. fullyD. er6. The “s” in drums is _D__.A. a free morphemeB. a stemC. a rootD. an inflectional affix7. The word “bodyguard” is a __A___.A. compound wordB. complex wordC. derivational wordD. free morpheme8. Which of the following words is a derivational one?CA. blackboardB. singsC. astonishmentD. boys1. Atom is a word of __B__ origin.A. LatinB. GreekC. ArabicD. Spanish2. English has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages EXCEPT _B___.A. FrenchB. KoreanC. LatinD. Greek3. Which of the following words is built by abbreviation?BA. smogB. fridgeC. motelD. edit4. The word “hamburger” is of __C_ origin.A. AmericanB. ItalianC. GermanD. French5. The word “smog” is formed through __B_.A. derivationB. blendingC. clippingD. backformation6. WTO is _B____.A. an abbreviationB. an acronymC. a blending wordD. a backformation word7. Of the following word formation processes, _D__ is the most productive.A. clippingB. blendingC. initialismD. derivation8. Motel is a(n) __C___.A. abbreviationB. coinageC. blendingD. acronym1. The relation between the determiner “this” and the noun “man” in the phrase “this man” is __B__.A. governmentB. concordC. bindingD. paradigmatic2. Which of the following phrases is exocentric?DA. women and menB. on the tableC. a clever boyD. an ugly man3. __C__are the defining properties of units like nouns(number, gender, case, etc)and verbs(tense, aspect, voice, etc).A. Parts of speechB. word classesC. categoriesD. functions of words4. _D___ is NOT a grammatical category of English verbs.A. tenseB. aspectC. voiceD. gender5. _D___ is NOT a grammatical category of English pronouns.A. genderB. numberC. caseD. voice6. Expressions like“Tom”or “He” can both be filled in the blank of the sentence “__D__ is smiling”. So Tom and He have ____ relation.A. syntagmaticB. paradigmaticC. systematicD. governing7. The phrase “the three small Chinese children”is _A___ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. hierarchicalD. linear1. “Big” and “small” are a pair of _B___ opposites.A. complementaryB. gradableC. completeD. converse2. __A__ examines how meaning is encoded in a language.A. SemanticsB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Morphology3. Leech divided meanings into _D___ types.A. 4B. 5C. 6D. 74. The relatio n between “food” and “bread” is called __D__.A. synonymyB. polysemyC. homonymyD. hyponymy5. “Buy” and “sell” form a pair of _A___.A. converse antonymsB. gradable antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. marked antonyms6. _D___ is a pair of complementary antonyms.A. wild and tameB. nimble and lameC. cold and warmD. alive and dead7. __D__ is NOT included in Leech’s associative meaning.A. connotative meaningB. social meaningC. collocative meaningD. conceptual meaning8. T he words “male” and “female” are __B__ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. converseD. complete。