measured in numerous ways; these often involve recall or recognition.
In recall tests, reproduction of material is required. Whereas in recognition tests, material is presented to people and they are required to judge whether or not they have seen it previously.
Sometimes a derivative measure is used, such as d' from the theory of signal detection.
Recently, investigators concerned with recognition have used reaction time as a dependent measure.
That is, implicit memory tests are tasks that can be performed without specific reference to the previous experiences in the laboratory.
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一、记忆研究中的各种变量（5）
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一、记忆研究中的各种变量（2）
Three popular recall tests are serial recall, free recall, and pairedassociate recall.
Recognition tests are generally of two types.
1885——1960：开始于艾宾浩斯（H. Ebbinghaus）的研 究；词语学习（verbal learning）的漫长时期；
1960——1980：认知心理学兴起；记忆的计算机模拟十 分流行；
1980——至今：记忆研究的认知神经科学阶段；
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一、记忆研究中的各种变量（1）
Dependent Variables：Remembering may be
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一、记忆研究中的各种变量（3）
In each case, the dependent measure in tests of recall and recognition is the number or proportion of items correctly recalled or recognized in different conditions or the number of errors, which amounts to the same thing.
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一、记忆研究中的各种变量（6）
Control Variables: Memory experiments are typically quite well
controlled. Important variables that are usually held constant across conditions are the amount of material presented and the rate of presentation, though these can be interesting variables in their own right. The modality of presentation is another factor that must not vary, unless it is a variable of major interest. If some characteristic of the material is being varied, then it is necessary to hold constant other factors.
Yes/No recognition tests;
Forced-choice recognition tests
Forced-choice tests are preferred to yes/no tests because correcting for guessing is less of a problem.
Independent Variables: Many types of variables are
manipulated in experiments on human memory. One of the most popular variables historically has been the nature of the material presented for memory. It can be letters, digits, nonsense syllables, words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, or long passages of prose; the characteristics of each of these types of material can also be varied; The retention interval between presentation of material and test; Modality of presentation; Study strategy; The nature of the memory test given to people.
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第八章 记忆
近100多年来，记忆研究一直是心理学中最活跃的 领域之一。当代著名的记忆心理学家E. Tulving （1995）把科学的记忆研究划分为ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ个阶段：
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一、记忆研究中的各种变量（4）
Recently, the study of implicit memory tests has intrigued cognitive psychologists. Although these tests do not require people to consciously remember the material they have studied, performance on these tasks is influenced or “primed” by previous exposure to the material.