第七章词汇：modes n. 模式elevation 提高shrinking v. 萎缩amelioration n. 改进humble adj. 谦逊的；简陋的；（级别或地位）低下的；不大的pejoration n. 恶化；堕落；语义的转贬derogatory adj. 贬损的Analogy 比拟要点：一.Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it isunder-going constant changes both in form and content.The content is even more unstable than the forms.Word-meaning changes by modes isextension, narrowing, degradation, elevation and transfer. of these, extensionand narrowing are by far the most common.二.1.Extension (generalization)--is a term referring to the widening of meaning. It is a pro cess by which a word,which originally had a specialized meaning, has now become generalized.(Word old meaning now meaningManuscript handwriting :any author‘s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer or a word-processorFabulous resembling:a fable incredible, marvelousBarn :a place for storing only barley storeroomPicture painting include "drawings" and even "photographs".Mill place for grinding into flour place where things are ma deJournal daily paper periodicalButcher one who kills goats one who kills animalsCompanion one who shares bread a company·. A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended sometimes in the course of development. Some words are generalized to such an extent that they can mean almost anything.Word old meaning now meaningThing a public assembly or a council anythingBusiness, concern, condition, matter, article, circumstance ·.Technical termsWord old meaning now meaningAlibi (a legal term) plea that the accused is not at the place excuseWhen the crime is committedAllergic (a medical term) too sensitive to medicine averse or disinclined toFeedback (computer term) response ·.From proper nounsWord old meaning now meaningLynch the Lynch‘s Law kill without lawful trialSandwish a gambler‘s name to denote a kind of fast place or squeeze betweenFood Vandal a member of an East Germanic tribe malicious destruction of a thingA person of such behaviourV. vandalize Adj. Vandalic/vandalistic n. vandalization/vandalism2. Narrowing (specialization) --is a term referring to the shrinking of meaning. It is a proc ess by which a word ofwide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.Word old meaning now meaningDeer animal Corn grain maize Garage any safe place a place for storing carsLiquor liquid alcoholic drinkDisease discomfort illnessPoison drink poisonous drinkWife woman a married womanAccident event unfortunate eventGirl young person of either sex female young person.Turn into a proper nounsThe City business center of LondonThe Peninsula Iberian PeninsulaThe Prophet Mohammed.For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original is left t o retain the meaning ofthe whole.e.g. a private = a private solidera general = a general officeran editorial = an editorial article.Material nounsWord old meaning now meaningSilver silver dollarsGlass cup-like container or mirrorIron device for smoothing clothes3.Elevation or amelioration--refers to the process by which words rise from humble beg innings to positions ofimportance.Word old meaning now meaningNice ignorant --- foolish delightful, pleasantMarshal / constable keeper of horses high-ranking army officer / policemenAngle messenger messenger of GodKnight servant rank below baronetEarl men countGovernor pilot head of a stateFond foolish affectionateMinister servant head of ministryShrewd evil, wickedness smartNimble be good at taking things without permission smartChamberlain servant high official of royal courtsSuccess result4. Degradation or pejoration of meaning --It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation ornon-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.Word old meaning now meaningBoor peasant rude, ill-mannered personChurl peasant / free man uncultivated or mean personWench country girl prostituteHussy housewife woman of low moralsVillain person who worked in a villa evil or wicked person or scoundrelSilly happy foolishKnave boy dishonest personLewd ignorant lecherousCriticize appraise find fault withLust pleasure sexual desire5. Transfer- words which were used to designate on thing but later changed to meansomething else.Word old meaning now meaningPaper an African plant papyrus·Associated transferE.g. the lip of a woundThe tongue of a bellThe nose of a planePurse for money, dish for food, glass for cup·Between abstract and concrete meaningWord old meaning now meaningAftermath second crop of grass after mowing consequence, resultHope e.g. Clinton is the hope of the family.·Between subject and objective meaningWord old meaning now meaningPitiful full of pity deserving pityDreadful / hateful subject meaning objective meaningFearful/ doubtful / suspicious subject and objective meaning·Transfer of sensationsE.g. clear-sounding (from sight to hearing)Loud colours (from hearing to sight)Sweet music (from taste to hearing)三.1. Extra-linguistic Factors1). Historical reason·A word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed because the reference has changed.Word old meaning now meaningPen featherCar two-wheel cart drown by horses and used automobile in warComputer person who computes electronic machine·Increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factorsWord old meaning now meaningSun the luminous heavenly body-one of the star around which the earth and other p lanets revolveseven planets revolving around the earthAtom any of the indivisible particles not the smallest and can be divided into evensmaller particles2). Class reaso n. Language is just like a mirror, reflecting everything that exists inhuman society. It records the speech and attitude of different social classes.As a result, different social varieties of language have come into being.Word old meaning now meaningChurl, hussy, wench, villain ill-mannered or bad peopleDemocracy, revolution, liberalism, human rights, communism different meaning in different societies and to different people3). Psychological reason. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. people change word-meaning owingto various psychological(slang). Religious influence isanother kind psychological need.Word old meaning now meaningCopperhead a venomous snake2. Linguistic factors1). ShorteningGold for gold medalGas for coal gasBulb for light bulbPrivate for private solider2).BorrowingDeer / animal / beastPig / pork, sheep / mutton, cattle / beefBird / fowl, dog / hound, boy / knave, chair / stool3). AnalogyFortuitous happening by chance, accident fortunateFruition a pleasure obtaining from using or possessing something。