第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)布拉格学派与功能句子观2. The London School and context of situation伦敦学派与语境观3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar韩礼德与系统——功能语法4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法常考考点：各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。
本章内容索引：I. Saussure and modern linguisticsII. The Prague School1. Main points and contribution2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)3. Communicative Dynamism (CD)III. The London School1. Introduction2. Malinowski’s theories3. Firth’s theories4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar(1) Systemic grammar(2) Functional grammarIV. American Structuralism1. Introduction2. Three stages of the developmentV. Transformational-Generative Grammar1. Introduction2. The Innateness Hypothesis3. Generative Grammar4. Stage of development of TG Grammar5. Main features of TG GrammarI. Saussure and modern linguistics (索绪尔和现代语言学)Modern linguistics has started from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) , who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” and “a master of a discipline which he made modern”.According to Saussure, language is a system of signs which uses sounds to express and exchange ideas. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, i.e. the signifier and the signified. The sign is the central fact of language, and therefore the study of language must start from the nature of the sign itself.Saussure identifies several groups of important concepts: signifier and signified, langue and parole, synchronic and diachronic research, etc.现代语言学始于瑞士语言学家索绪尔，他被称为“现代语言学之父”和一位“使语言学走向现代的大师”。
索绪尔认为，语言是用声音表达交流思想的符号系统。
符号是形式和意义的联合，是表示者和被表示者的结合。
符号是语言事实的核心，研究语言必须从符号本身的特性入手。
索绪尔区分了几组重要的概念：能指和所指，语言和言语，共时研究和历时研究等。
II. The Prague School (布拉格学派)【考点：简答——布拉格学派的主要观点及代表人物】The Prague School can be traced back to its first meeting under the leadership of V. Mathesius.布拉格学派的形成可以追溯到马泰休斯领导召开的该学派的第一次会议。
1. Main points and contribution (主要观点及贡献)The Prague School has three points of special importance:(1) It stresses that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation.(2) It emphasizes the systemic character of language, arguing that no element of any language can be satisfactory analyzed or evaluated if viewed in isolation. In other words, elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition.(3) It looks on language as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.布拉格学派的研究有三大重点：（1）强调共时研究的合理性，因为它可以提供完整且易掌控的研究材料。
（2）强调语言的系统性，指出任何语言单位都不能在孤立的的情况下得到令人满意的分析及评估。
换句话说，语言单位处于功能对比、对立之中。
（3）它将语言看作是在所属语言群体中发挥一系列功能的工具。
2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) (功能句子观)Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.Some Czech linguists devoted considerable attention to problems of analyzingsentences from a functional point of view. They argue that a sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer—it is the ground on which they meet and is regarded as the theme. The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer, and is called the rheme. The movement from the theme to the rheme reveals the movement of the mind itself.【考点：指出给定句子的主位和述位】FSP deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known (or given) information and new information in discourse. The known information refers to information that is not new to the reader or hearer. The new information is what needs to be transmitted to the reader or hearer. The Subject-Predicate distinction is not always the same as the Theme-Rheme contrast功能句子观是一套语言学分析理论，它是指用所含信息来分析话语或文本。
其基本原则就是一句话中各部分起的作用取决于它对全句意义的贡献。
一些捷克语言学家尝试从功能的角度来分析句子。
他们相信一个句子包含话语的出发点和话语的目的。
话语的出发点叫做主位，它是说话人和听话人都知道的信息；话语的目的是说话人要向听话人传递的信息，叫做述位。
从主位到述位的运动揭示了大脑本身的运动。
功能句子观旨在研究话语中新(未知)、旧(已知)信息的分布问题。
已知信息指那些对于听话人不再是新信息的部分；新信息是即将向听话人传达的信息。
句子中主语-谓语的分布不总是与主位-述位的分布一致。
3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) (交际能力)CD is another version of the same analysis, which was proposed by Firbas. By CD, Firbas means the extent to which the sentence elements contribute to the development of the communication.Firbas defined FSP as the distribution of different degrees of CD. In his view, the initial elements of a sequence carry the lowest degree of CD and with each step forward, the degree of CD becomes incremental till the element that carries the highest.另一种版本的分析法叫做交际能力，由费尔巴斯提出。