月 上 柳 梢 头 人 约 黄 昏 后
钱冠连：《汉语文化语用学》 语境是指言语行为赖以表
现的物质和社会环境。
Context
Linguistic knowledge
Extra-linguistic knowledge

1.
2. 1. 2.
3.
Linguistic knowledge Knowledge of the language they use Knowledge of what has been said before Extra-linguistic knowledge Knowledge about the world in general Knowledge about the specific situation Knowledge about each other

The International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) has been in existence since 1985.
Review
不 见 去 年 人 ， 泪 湿 春 衫 袖 。
今 年 元 夜 时 ， 月 与 灯 依 旧 。
月 上 柳 梢 头 ， 人 约 黄 昏 后 。
Physical Context (situational context)

If you see the word BANK on the wall of a building in a city, the „physical‟ location will influence your interpretation.
Extra-linguistic knowledge
Background knowledge Common sense Social norms Conversation rules
Situation knowledge
Time place
Topic formality
Relation Bt. users
For example: Bank
The word bank is a homonym. How do we usually know which meaning is intended in a particular sentence? On the basis of linguistic context: In a sentence together with words like steep or overgrown She has to get to the bank to cash a check.

2.1.2 Context
Context
Linguistic Context (Co-text)
Physical Context (Situational Context)
Linguistic context (co-text)

Definition: The co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. This surrounding co-text has a strong effect on what we think the word means.

Contextual Meaning: meaning in context
The
meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is , who the hearer is, when and where it is used.
Definition of Pragmatics
去 年 元 夜 时修
2.2 Reference
Definition: In pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference. In semantics, it is often assumed that the words we use to identify things are in some direct relationship to those things.

For example
(1) a: Where is the fresh salad sitting? b: He‟s sitting by the door. (2) a: Can I look at your Shakespeare? b: Sure, it‟s on the shelf over there. We can use names associated with things to refer to people and names of people to refer to things.
Chapter Two Pragmatics
2.1 Introduction
A: I have a fourteen year old son. B: Well that‟s all right. A: I also have a dog. B: Oh I‟m sorry.

Harvey Sacks (1992) A is trying to rent an apartment from B.
Context & language use
Context governs the speaker‟s use of language. Context determines the hearer‟s interpretation of what is said to him.

2.1.3 Grammatical analysis vs Pragmatic analysis
First, grammatical studies look for rules while pragmatic studies look for principles. Rules are black and white. E.g. “He studies linguistics”. Principles are not black and white. Principle 1: we should tell the truth. Principle 2: we should be polite in our speech. Express some polite beliefs and then tell the truth in very soft, gentle words.
For example
Driving by a parking lot, you may see a large sign:
Heated Attendant PARKING
The sign is advertising a place where you can park your „heated attendant‟. You can park your car in this place, that it‟s a heated area, and that there will be an attendant to look after the car. You use the meanings of the words, in combination, and the context in which they occur, and you try to arrive at what the writer of the sign intended his message to convey.
2.3 Deixis

1.
2.
1. 2.
Definition: Deixis means “pointing” via language. Any linguistic form used to do this “pointing” is called a deictic expression. For example: Here/there, this/that, now/then I, we, you, he, her, and them

Example 2
BABY & TODDLER SALE
Our commonsense interpretation would be that the advertiser intended us to understand his message as relating to the sale of baby clothes and not of babies. When we hear or read pieces of language, we normally try to understand not only what the words mean, but also what the speaker or writer intended to convey.

Example 2:
A.
B. C.
D.
My American friend thinks I‟m very British. British summer is always beautiful. He became a British subject when he came here from London in 1995. He is always careful to call himself British rather than English.