Syntax is concerned with the rules that determine the correct structure.
◆The ◆ The
duck ran up to Mary and licked her. duck ran up to Mary and it licked
符号学是系统地研究语言符号与非语言符号的学科
Semiotocs is usually divided into three branches
Syntactics: Relations among signs in formal structures.
Semantics: Relation between signs and the things to which they refer.
---Levinson 1983
Pragmatics is the study of the relations between language and context that are basic to an account of language understanding.
---Levinson 1983
Linguistic context is internalized context including cotextual context which allows learners to refer back and forth through unfolding text itself.
a. Phonological context refers to intonation, stress, pause which is used to determine different meanings.
*The bottle of ketchup ran up to Mary and licked her.
◆ The
duck ran up to Mary and it licked her. p & q
If p is true, q is true, then p&q is true.
If either p or q is false, then p&q is false.
c. Cultural context refers to the cultural background. It includes beliefs, customs, ideas, value system, religious and history and etc.
Regularity
When it comes to using language, people tend to behave in a fairly regular ways . Some of that regularity derives from the fact that people are members of social groups and follow general patterns of behavior expected within the group.
Non-linguistic context is also named extra-linguistic context which constrains and regulates the application of the shared “ground-rules” 整套规则for communication. a. Situational context refers to the background knowledge, actual speech setting, and types of discourse.
---Stalnaker, 1972
Pragmatics is the study of language use and lingustic communication.
---Akmajian, 1979
Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations.
Pragmatics: Relation between signs and their effects on those who use them.
具体化过程 抽象化过程
Definitions of pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captured in a semantic theory.
A pragmatic principle
Interpret order of mention as a reflection of order of occurrence.
According to formal semantics(形式语义学), p&q=q&p.
◆He
speaks French and she speaks Chinese.= married and had a child.
her.
◆ The
bottle of ketchup ran up to Mary and licked her.
*Ran up to Mary and licked the duck her.
Semantics is also concerned with the truthconditions真值条件 of propositions命题 expressed in sentences.
◆ The ◆Open
the window, would you?
semantics + pragmatics
meaning
two important concepts
context
linguistic context and nonlingustic context
linguistic context
b. Social context is any kind of relation among human and any contact. It concerns the historical background and the background characteristic of times.
பைடு நூலகம்Chapter 1
Definitions and background
Charles Morris and semiotics(1938)
Semiotics, also called semiotic studies or semiology, is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs and symbols. Semiotics is frequently seen as having important anthropological dimensions. Umberto Eco proposes that every cultural phenomenon can be studied as communication. However, some semioticians focus on the logical dimensions of the science. In general, semiotic theories take signs or sign systems as their object of study: the communication of information in living organisms is covered in biosemiotics or zoosemiosis.
Pragmatics is a theory which seeks to characterize how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication.
---Kempson 1975
Pragmatics is the study of linguistic acts and the contexts in which they are performed.
Pragmatics---wastebasket Pragmatics deals with the stuff that wasn’t easily handled within the formal system of analysis. Pragmatics deals with the biotic aspects of semiosis, that is, with all the psychological, biological, and sociological phenomena which occur in the functioning of signs.
b. Lexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemous word. It contributes to the co-locative meaning of a word or phrase. c. Grammatical context refers to either syntactic or lexical, and in some instances rhetorical context.
---Leech, 1983