第一章语言学入门知识：I. 名词解释1．cultural transmission (as a defining property of language) Answer: While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted. They are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.2．descriptive linguistics vs. prescriptive linguisticsAnswer: A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. Linguistic studies before the 204 century are largely prescriptive whereas modem linguistic is mostly descriptive.II. 判断正误（T for True and F for False）1. When language is used to get information, it serves an informative function.Answer: F (It serves an interrogative function).2．Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.Answer: F (The primary units in these systems cannot be further divided into elements. So what they lack is the secondary level of articulation.) 3．Descriptive linguistics are concerned with how languages work, not with how they can be improved.Answer: TIII. 填空题1．By saying that "language is arbitrary", we mean that there is no logical connection between meaning and _______.Answer: sounds2．The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist E de Saussure. The distinction between competence and performance is made by the American linguist__________.Answer: Noam Chomsky3．An approach to linguistic study which attempts to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used is _______.Answer: prescriptiveIV. 选择题1．Unlike animal communication system, human language is ______.A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interestAnswer：A2. ____ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modem linguistics.a. Chomskyb. Saussurec. Bloomfieldd. John LyonAnswer: bV. 问答题l. Is language productive or not WhyAnswer: Firstly, Language is productive or creative. This means that language users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. Secondly, Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems have a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. Thirdly, The productivity or creativity of human language originates from its duality. Because of duality, the speaker can combine the basiclinguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences. The productivity of language also means its potential to create endless sentences. This is made possible by the recursive nature of language.2. Comment on the fo llowing statement: “In linguistics, ‘language’ only means what a person says or said in a given situation”.Answer: This statement is incorrect. In linguistics, "language" has several layers of meaning: firstly, the whole of a person’s language, . Shakesp eare’s language; secondly, a particular variety or level of speech or writing, . scientific language, literary language, colloquial language; thirdly, an abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community, . the English language, the Chinese language; lastly, there is an even more abstract sense of "language", referring to the common features of all human languages that distinguish them from animal communication systems or any artificial language.3. Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.Answer: Firstly, most linguistic analyses today focus on speech rather than writing. Secondly, modem linguistics is mostly descriptive while traditional grammar is largely prescriptive. Thirdly, a third difference is the priority of synchronic description over the traditional diachronic studies.4. What is the major difference between Saussure' s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky's distinction between competence and performanceAnswer: S aussure’s langue is social product, a set of conventions for a speech community. Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.第二章语音学和音位学I. 名词解释1．narrow transcriptionAnswer: There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the “broad transcription”----the transcription with letter-symbols only, and the other is “narrow transcription”---the transcription with letter-symbols accompanied by the diacritics which can help bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.2. Illustrate the term “allophone” with at least one appropriate example. Answer: Allophones are the different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning. For example, in English, the phoneme /l/ is pronounced differently in "let", "play" and "tell". The first /l/ is made byraising the front of the tongue to the hard palate, while the vocal cords are vibrating; the second /l/ is made with the same tongue position as the first, but the vocal cords are not vibrating; and the third /l/ is made by raising not only the front by also the back of the tongue while the vocal cords are vibrating.II 判断正误（T for True and F for False）1. /o/ is a mid-high front rounded vowel.Answer: F. (/o/ is a mid-high BACK rounded vowel.)2. A phoneme in one language or one dialect may be an allophone in another language or dialect.Answer: T.III. 填空题：1. The three cavities in the articulatory apparatus are _____, _______, and _____.Answer: pharynx, the nasal cavity, the oral cavity2. By the position of the ____ part of the tongue, vowels and classified as front vowels, central vowels and back vowels.Answer: highest.3. ____refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.Answer: Assimilation.4. You are required to fill in the blanks below abiding by the instance given beforehand.Example: /p/: voiced bilabial stop/s/: ________________/g/:_______________/t/:______________/t/: _______________/f /: _______________Answer:/s/: voiceless alveolar fricative/g/: voiced velar stop/t/: voiceless alveo-palatal/post-alveolar affricate/ t /: voiced dental fricative/f /: voiceless labiodental fricative5. Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs and minimal setspat, pen more, heat, tape, bun, fat, ban, chain, tale, bell, far, meal, vote, bet, heel, ten, men, pit, main, hit, eat, manAnswer:pat, fat; pat, pit; pit, hit;pen, ten; ten, men;heat, eat; heat, heel;tape, tale;bun, ban;chain, main;bell, bet;meal, heel;man, men, main.IV. 选择题1. All syllables contain a(n) _______.a. nucleusb. codac. onsetAnswer: a2. _____is one of the supersegmental features.a. Stopb. Voicingc. Deletiond. ToneAnswer: d3. Which of the following consonants does not exist in Englisha. dental stopb. bilabial stopc. alveolar stopd. velar stopAnswer: a4. _____is not an English consonant.a. Labiodental plosiveb. Alveolar nasalc. Velar stopd. Dental fricativeAnswer: aV. 辨音选择1. What are the distinctive features that group the following sounds in these sets1) /f, v ,s/2) /p, f, b/3) /g, z, b/4) /k, g, w/5) /m, n, /Answer: 1) fricative 2) obstruent 3) voiced 4) velar5) nasal2. There is one segment that does not belong to the natural class in each of the following groups of speech sounds. You are required to identify that segment and label the natural class, using a descriptive term as specific as possible.a) /m/, /n/, /w/, / /b) /v/, /w/, /z/, /t/c) /n/, /f/, /l/, /s/, /t/, /d/, /z/Answer:1) /w/ is a semi-vowel, and the others are all nasals.2) /t/ is voiceless, and the others are voiced.3) /f/ is labiodental, and the rest are alveolarVI. 问答题1．Circle the words that contain a sound as required:1) a low vowel: pipe, gather, article, leave, cook2) a bilabial consonant: cool, lad, leap, bomb, push3) an approximant: luck, boots, word, once, table4) a front vowel: god, neat, pit, lush, cook5) a velar: god, fast, chat, lake, quick2．Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone. Answer: Firstly, a “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones may or may not distinguish meaning. Secondly, a "phoneme" is a phonological unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound. It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Thirdly, thephones representing a phoneme are called its "allophones". How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random but rule-governed in most cases. 3．When we are pronouncing the following phrases, how do we actually articulate the "n" sound in the word "ten" Do we still pronounce it as /n/ 1) ten houses 2) ten teachers 3) ten colleges 4) ten pupils 5) ten buildings 6) ten classesAnswer: 1) /n/2) /n/3) / /4) /m/5) /m/6) / /4．How many functions do the vocal cords have in the production of speech soundsAnswer: They have three functions: to make a glottal stop, to produce a voiced sound and to produce a voiceless sound.第三章形态学I. 名词解释1．morphemeAnswer: The morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering its meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For instance, the word "barks" in "The dog barks" consists of two morphemes ― "bark" and "-s", neither of which can be further divided into other smaller meaningful units.2．lexemeAnswer: The term "lexeme" is postulated to reduce the ambiguity of the term "word". It is the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts. For example, "write" is the lexeme of the following set of words: "writes", "wrote", "writing", "written".3．inflectional morphemesAnswer: Inflectional morphemes are also called inflectional affixes. They manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas number, tense, degree and case. In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes, . -(e)s, -ing, -(e)d, -est.II. 判断正误1．A root is not always a free form.Answer: T (There are such bound roots as “-ceive”.)III. 填空题1．Polymorphemic words other than compounds have two parts: the roots and the ____.Answer: affixes2．On, before and together are_____words ― they are words which do not take inflectional endings.Answer: grammatical (functional/form)IV．选择题1．"Radar" is a/an____.a. acronymb. blendingc. coinaged. clippingAnswer: a2．Compound words consist of______ morphemes.a. boundb. freec. both bound and freeAnswer: bV. 匹配题Match each expression under A with the one statement under B that characterizes it.A B1. a noisy crow a. compound noun2. eat crow b. root morpheme plus derivational prefix3. scarecrow c. phrase consisting of an adjective plus noun4. the crow d. root morpheme plus inflection affix5. crowlike e. root morpheme plus derivational suffix6. crows f. grammatical morpheme followed by lexical morphemeg. idiomAnswer: 1. c 2. g 3. a 4. f 5. e 6. dVI. 问答题1. Divide the following words into Roots, IA (inflectional affix) and/or DA (derivational affix).1) transformations 2) looseleaves3) destructive 4) geese 5) misledAnswer:1) trans- (DA) form (Root) -ation (DA) s (IA)2) loose (Root) leave (Root) s (IA)3) de- (DA) struct (Root) -ive (DA)4) geese (IA)5) mis- (DA) led (IA)2. Label the morphological category of the morphemes underlined in each of the English expressions.a) I' ve been here.b) transformc) oxend) recurAnswer: a) bound morpheme b) derivational prefix c) inflectional suffix d) bound root3. Each of the following Persian words is poly-morphemic. You are required to match each of the notions given below with a morpheme in Persian. (Note that xar means "buy" and -id designates the past tense). xaridiYou (singular) bought. naxaridamI did not buy. namixaridandThey were not buying. xaridHe bought.naxaridimWe did not buy. mixaridHe was buying. mixarididYou (plural) were buying. xaridamI bought.Match each of the notions given below with a morpheme in Persian:a) Ib) you (singular)c) notd) was/were V-ing (continuous)Answer: a) amb) ic) nad) miVid4．It is a fact that morphological processes may be sensitive to certain phonological context. The English data given below illustrate this fact. You are required to state the phonological contexts where the addition of -en is possible.a bwhiten *bluenmadden *stupidenredden *greenenFatten *fartheren quicken *slowendeafen *difficultenLiven *abstractenharden *shallowensoften *angryendeepen *vividenAnswer: The suffix -en, which attaches to adjectives to form verbs, can only attach to monosyllabic bases ending in oral stops or fricatives. VerbAdjective-en if Adjective ends in an obstruent (oral stop or fricative).- <Φ> if Adjective ends in a sonorant (nasal, approximant, vowel) Meaning: to make (more) Adjectives5．The word uneasiness may be analyzed in either of the two ways below. You are required to find an argument to support one of the two analyses.a)NPrefixNoununAdjectiveSuffixeasinessb)NAdjectiveSuffixPrefixAdjectivenessuneasiAnswer: b) is the correct analysis, because un- only attaches to adjectives to form other adjectives. Un- cannot be attached to a noun.。