Chapter 2 Translation at Word LevelThough words are regarded as the minimum unit in translation by some people, they play a crucial role. Whether the meaning of a word is properly rendered into the target text is an important criterion to judge the quality of the translation. In some cases the translator only needs to reproduce the denotative meaning of a word，but in other cases he has to render the connotative meaning of a word in the specific sentence. Therefore，he must achieve a thorough understanding of the original text before starting his translation.2.1 Comparison between English and Chinese at Word LevelComparative studies of English and Chinese are mainly conducted through comparing the similarities and diversities of the two languages in word formation, word class and word meaning.2.1.1 Comparison of Word Formation2.2 .2 Comparison of Word ClassSimilarities and differences exist in the classification of word class between English and Chinese. Moreover，the frequency of word classes in the language usage also differs between English and Chinese.2.1.2.1 ClassificationChinesecontent words : verbs，adjectives，adverbs，pronouns，numerals and quantifiers.empty words: prepositions，conjunctions，interjections，and auxiliary words .Englishcontents words: nouns，verbs，adjectives，adverbs，pronouns，numeralsempty words: prepositions，conjunctions，articles，and interjections .It can be noticed through the comparison that the classification of word class between the two languages is generally the same；the differences lie in that English lacks quantifiers （量词），whereas Chinese has no articles. In addition，auxiliary words are a special class in Chinese，which can be further divided into auxiliary words for structure （结构助词：的，地，得），auxiliary words for tense （时态助词：着，了，过）and auxiliary words for mood （语气助词：吗，啊，呀，呢）. Once understanding the differences between English and Chinese in the classification of word class，the translator can make some adjustments so as to avoid grammatical mistakes in his translation.First，in C-E translation he needs to add articles where necessary，and use the plural forms of nouns if there are quantifiers in the Chinese sentences to express the plural meaning; while in E-C translation he should add quantifiers before the nouns where necessary. For instance: （1）我们对问题要做全面分析，才能解决妥当。

We must make a comprehensive analysis ofa problem before it can be properly solved.（2）层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花……Here and there，layers of leaves are dotted with white lotus blossoms..（3）There in a department-store window were two electric trains chugging through a miniature，snow-covered town. 在一家百货商店的橱窗里，有两列电动火车正在一座白雪覆盖的微型城市里嘎嚓嘎嚓地行驶。

Second， a question or exclamation in Chinese is expressed with the auxiliary words for mood，but in English there’s no auxiliary words for mood；thus，in C-E translation，the wordorder is reverted to express the question or exclamation；and what’s expressed with auxiliary words for tense can be expressed through the changing of verb forms. For example:（1）多俊的姑娘呀！What a pretty girl!（2）“作业做完了吗？”“做着呢！”“Have you finished your homework？”“I am doing it.”2.1.2.2 FrequencyFirstly, English is a static language, while Chinese is dynamic, so Many English verbs and adjectives can be converted into nouns，but Chinese verbs and adjectives can not. The reason for the high frequency of verbs in Chinese also lies in the fact that Chinese is short of prepositions and there are no participles at all. What is expressed by prepositions and participles in English has to be expressed by verbs in Chinese.Secondly, English is a hypotatic language, whereas Chinese is a paratactic language, which means English sees a much higher frequency of conjunctions. The former emphasizes relationships while the latter normally arranges the sentence according to time order. Several verbs are used one after another to combine different parts of a Chinese sentence together. Sometimes conjunctions are intentionally omitted to give prominence to verbs. The verbs in Chinese syntax are said to be of chronicle style. Different from Chinese, English syntax is compared to architecture style. The emphasis is turned from time order in Chinese to special structure in English. In addition, the hypotactic characteristic of English requires that the text should be strictly knit in structure—cohesion is an important measure to organize English text. And one of the cohesive devices is reference, which means using pronouns to refer to the nouns previously mentioned. Thus, pronouns are also more frequently used in English than in Chinese.Due to the above differences in the frequency of word class in the two languages，it is necessary to convert the word class of some words in the source text to conform to the language conventions of the target language, and add or omit the conjunctions or pronouns.（1）The most Panamanians are after at this time is a chance to get more income from the Canal. 此时巴拿马人所追求的最大目标是希望有机会通过运河得到更多的收入。