Syntax1.Syntax（句法）is a branch of linguistics that studies howwords are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.IC analysis（直接成分分析） is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are.3.The term “category”（范畴）in some approaches refers toclasses and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.Semantics1. Semantics（语义学）----the study of language meaning. Meaning is central to the study of communication.2. Word meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study ofword meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense（意义）---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract.Reference（指称）----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Major sense relations3.1 SynonymySynonymy（同义词）refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.3.2 Antonymy （反义）a. Gradable antonyms（可分级反义词）----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …b. Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …c.Relational opposites（关系对立反义词）----exhibits thereversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …d. Reversive（可逆性反义词）3.3 Hyponymy （上下关系）Hyponymy （上下关系）----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.a. Superordinate（上义词）: the word which is more general in meaning.b. Hyponyms（下义词）: the word which is more specific in meaning.c. Co-hyponyms（同级下义词）: hyponyms of the same superordinate.e.g. Superordinate: furnitureHyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …3.4 Polysemy （一词多义）----the same one word may have more than one meaning.3.5 HomonymyHomonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone（同音异义词）---- when two words are identical insound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh（同形异义词）---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling4. Componential analysis（成分分析）---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]⏹Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]⏹Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⏹Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Pragmatics语用学⏹Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication.⏹Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning, contextualmeaning, how more gets communicated than is said.⏹The originSemanticsContext considered Context unconsideredPragmatics Traditional semanticsSentence and utterance话语⏹The relation: Meaning of a sentence is abstract anddecontextualized while meaning of an utterance isconcrete and context-dependent. The meaning of anutterance is based on a sentence meaning and therealization of the abstract meaning of a sentencein a real situation of communication.⏹Example: My bag is heavy. (utterance meaning: a statement,indirec t or polite request, declining someone’s requestfor help)Cooperative Principles and violation of the conversation maxims合作原则和准则的违反⏹The maxim of quantity 数量准则Make your utterance as informative as required. No more and no less.⏹The maxim of quality 质量准则Do not say what you believe to be false and do not saywhat you lack evidence for.⏹The maxim of relation 关系准则Be relevant⏹The maxim of manner 方式准则Avoid obscurity, ambiguity. Be brief and orderly Violation of the maxims and revealing conversation implicature 会话含义⏹The use of the terms principle and maxim does not meanthat the CP and its maxims will be followed by everybody all the time. People do violate them and tell lies. In fact, the significance CP lies in the violations.⏹Examples of the violations of the maxims:1) Violation of the Maxim of Quantity⏹A: What are you reading?⏹B: A book.⏹A: Do you know where Dr. Townsend lives?⏹B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city. (saidwhen it is known to both A and B that B has Dr. Townsend’s address)2)Violation of the Maxim of Quality⏹A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?⏹B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.(said when it is known to both A and B thatB is feeling perfectly well)3) Violation of the Maxim of Relation⏹A: What time is it?⏹B: Well, the paper’s already come.⏹A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?⏹B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?⏹A: What do you think of the lecture?⏹B: He’s a good cook.4) Violation of the Maxim of Manner⏹A: Let’s stop and get something to eat.⏹B: Okay, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s.⏹A: What did your sister buy at Sears yesterday?⏹B: She bought a red dress, she bought a green dress, andshe bought a blue dress.。