1: language and language teachingWhat is language?nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.2.The answer to this question is the basis for syllabus d esign, teaching methods,teaching and assessment procedures in the classroom.3.Different views on language generate different teaching method ol ogies. Common Views on language1.Structural view （language competence）—The found er: Saussure—The structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system mad e up of various subsystems (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991): phonology, morphol ogy, and syntax.—The target of language l earning is seen to be the mastery of elements of this system, which are generally d efined in terms of phonological units (e.g., phonemes),grammatical units (e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences), grammatical operations (e.g., ad ding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements), and l exical items (e.g., function words and structure words).—Learning the language is to l earn the structural items, study the inner structure and rul e of language, ignore the social functions of the language.2.Functional view—Representative: Johnson, Marrow, swain canal (the core: grammar)—It views language as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning, a means of d oing things/ combining grammatical rul es and vocabulary to express id ea.3.Interactional view （communicative competence）—Emphasis: appropriateness—It views language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals.—Language is seen as a communicative tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations.—Learners need to know the rul es for using the language in certain contexts What makes a good language teacher?1. A good language teacher d oes not sol ely d epend on his/her command of thelanguage. There are a variety of el ement that contributes to the qualities of a good language teacher. These elements can be categorized into three groups: ethic d evotion, professional quality and personal styl es.How can one become a good language teacher?Wallace’s (1991) ‘refl ective mod el’1.Stage 1: language development2.Stage 2: learning, practice, reflection1)The l earning stage is the purposeful preparation that a language normallyreceives before the practice. This preparation can includ e:➢Learning from others’ experience➢Learning the received knowl edge➢Learning from one’s own experiences2)The practice stage (2 senses)Pseudo practice: short period of time assigned to d o teaching practice as part of one’s pre-service education, usually und er the supervision of instructorsThe real classroom teaching:what a teacher und ertakes after he/she finishes formal education3)Teachers benefit from practice if they keep on refl ecting on what they havebeen d oing3.Goal: professional competence2: theory of language l earning and language learners1.Fluency1)Different levels of fluency：[1]time-filling[2]quality of speech[3]appropriacy of speech[4]aesthetic capability2)In terms of second or foreign language environment, fluency means a l evel ofproficiency in communication (Richards, 1992).3)Four kinds of abilities:[1]the ability to produce spoken language with ease;[2]the ability to speak with a good but not necessarily perfect command ofintonation, vocabulary, and grammar;[3]the ability to communicate id eas effectively;[4]the ability to produce continuous speech without causing comprehensibl edifficulties or a breakd own in communication.2.Accuracy1)Accuracy refers to the ability to produce grammatically correct sentencesbut may not includ e the ability to speak or write fluently.3.Interaction1)Interaction pushes l earners to produce more accurate and appropriatelanguage, which itself provid es input for other stud ents. (Hedge, 2002)2)Forms of Interaction[1]Teacher—Stud ents[2]Stud ents—Stud ents➢Pair work➢Group work3)Advantages of group work and pair work:[1]Stud ents are more involved.[2]More language practices[3]Generating interactive language.[4]Offering an embracing affective climate.[5]Developing co-operative learning[6]Promoting l earner responsibility and autonomy.4)Problems of group work and pair work[1]The teacher is no longer in control of the class.[2]The class is noisy.[3]Stud ents will use their native language.[4]Stud ents' errors will be reinforced in small groups.[5]Teacher cannot monitor all groups at once.[6]Some learners prefer to work alone.[7]There are d ominant or silent speakers (chauffeurs and hitchhikers).[8]Stud ents talk about other things.[9]No time to practice fully or finish the task.5)Typical group work tasks[1]Games[2]Rol e-play and simulations[3]Drama[4]Projects[5]Interview[6]Brainstorming [7]Information gap[8]Jigsaw[9]Problem-solving andd ecision-making[10]Opinion exchange6)Before the start of group work/pair work tasks[1]Introduce the technique[2]Justify the use of pairs or small groups for the technique[3]Mod el the technique[4]Give explicit, d etail ed instructions➢a restatement of the purpose➢rul es to foll ow➢stay with your group➢share id eas and information➢listen to other peopl e's id eas➢help each other➢English only➢establish a time frame➢assign rol es (if any) to stud ents[5]Divid e the class into groups[6]Check for clarification[7]Set the task in motion➢Do not sit at your d esk and grad e papers.➢Do not leave the room and take a break.➢Do not spend undue amount of time with one group at the expense of others.➢Do not correct stud ents' errors unl ess asked to do so.➢Do not assume a d ominating or disruptive role whil e monitoring groups.➢reporting➢d emonstrating➢working on points which needs improving4.Learning and communication strategies1)Learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their ownl earning. Appropriate language l earning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confid ence. --Oxford, 19902)Learning strategies (O’M all ey et al, 1983)[1]Metacognitive strategies➢Metacognitive strategies are used to oversee, regulate or self-direct language l earning, which includ e how l earners regulate their l earningby planning, monitoring and evaluating their l earning activities.--Rubin, 1987➢advance organizer ➢directed attention ➢selective attention ➢self-management➢advance preparation ➢self-monitoring➢d elayed production ➢self-evaluation➢self-reinforcement[2]Cognitive strategies➢Cognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in l earning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of l earning materials. --O’Malley et al, 1983➢repetition ➢grouping ➢note-taking ➢d eduction ➢auditory ➢key word➢contextualization ➢elaboration➢transfer➢inferencing[3]Social mediation strategies➢Social mediation strategies/Communication strategies are those activities l earners engage in which afford them opportunities to beexposed to and practice their knowl edge.➢cooperation ➢question for clarification 3)Compensatory strategies[1]enabl e l earners to use the new language for either comprehension orproduction d espite limitations in knowl edge.[2]Compensatory strategies are intend ed to make up for an inad equaterepertoire of grammar and, especially, of vocabulary.[3]Knowledge sources for comprehension(1) Knowledge needed⏹Schematic knowledge: Schematic knowl edge or schemas(schem ata) refers to one’s general knowl edge about the worl dand about text types, which are cognitive constructs for theorganization of information in our l ong-term memory.➢background knowl edge: actual, sociocultural➢procedural knowl edge: how knowl edge is used in discourse⏹Contextual knowledge➢knowl edge of situation: physical setting, participants, etc.➢knowl edge of co-text: what has been, will be said⏹Systemic knowledge: syntactic, semantic, morphol ogical(2) Roles of the knowledge⏹allowing for effective guess (system knowl edge)⏹buil ding meanings by drawing on a wid er range of sources(including semantic and contextual knowl edge. Soundrecognition is not enough.)⏹making effective inference (previous knowl edge)⏹Cutting d own the range of possibl e meanings (situationalcontext)⏹meaning und erstanding is required bottom-up and top-d ownprocessesprehensible output1)Output can serve a consciousness-raising function by helping l earners tonotice gaps in their interlanguages.2)Output helps l earners to test hypotheses.3)Learners sometimes talk about their own output, id entifying problemswith it and discussing ways in which they can be put right.6.Enlightenment1)Teachers shoul d encourage stud ents to test hypotheses and to notice gapsin interactive processes.2)Stud ents are supposed to l earn English by using English and interactingwith others.3. communicative principles and task-based language teaching1.CL T（交际英语教学）:1)Definition:Communicative Language Teaching is an approach that focuseson linguistic functions and on training communicative competence of the l earners. It includ es both the knowl edge about the language and the knowl edge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations.2)The basis: the theory of sociol ogy and sociolinguistic.3)Communicative Competence: Four aspects includ ed (Hymes, 1979):[1]knowing whether or not something is formally possibl e (grammaticallyacceptabl e), which is roughly equivalent to Chomsky's linguistic competence.[2]knowing whether something is und erstandabl e to human beings.[3]knowing whether something is in line with social norms;[4]knowing whether or not something is in fact done: Do peopl e actually uselanguage this way?4)Features of Communicative Language Teaching[1]It stresses the need to all ow stud ents opportunities for authentic andcreative use of the language.[2]It focuses on meaning rather than form.[3]It suggests that l earning shoul d be rel evant to the needs of the stud ents.[4]It advocates task-based language teaching. Stud ents shoul d be given tasks toperform or problems to solve in the classroom.5)Principles[1]Communication principl e[2]Task principl e[3]Meaningfulness principl e6)Criteria for evaluating communicative activities[1]Communicative purpose[2]Communicative d esire[3]Content, not form[4]Variety of language[5]No teacher intervention[6]No material controls7)Merits of CL T:[1]likely to give the stud ents all skills[2]More relevant[3]Less waste of time and effort8)Demerit of CL T:[1]make great d emands upon the professional training and skills of theteacher[2]Difficult to cheek what stud ent have learnt[3]Don't offer the teacher the security of the textbook9)Traditional class VS CL T[1]Listening: to the teacher, to the tape →sth. unpredictabl e, sth. authentic,sth. meaningful[2]Reading: l earning language →get information, exact meaning, differentskills[3]Speaking: repeating, answering, retelling →sth. creating, express oneself[4]Writing: composition, translation →write to express oneself, one’s feeling,one’s thought; write what peopl e write in the way peopl e write.10)Linguistic Competence: tacit knowl edge of language structures and the abilityto use the knowl edge to und erstand and produce language. (Chomsky)11)Communicative Competence: Both knowl edge about the language and theknowl edge about how to use the language in communicative situation appropriately.2.Task-based Language Teaching (TBL T)1)TBL T vs. CL T[1]TBLT is, in fact, a further d evelopment of CLT.[2]It shares the same beliefs, as language shoul d be l earned as cl ose aspossibl e to how it is used in real life.[3]However, it has stressed the importance to combine form-focused teachingwith communication-focused teaching.2)model[1]Pre-task[2]Task cycl e➢Task: d o the task➢Planning: prepare to report/rehearse➢Report➢Hearing task recording or read text[3]Language focus➢Analysis➢Practice3)What is a task?[1]A task is essentially goal-oriented; it requires the group, or pair, to achievean objective that is usually expressed by an observabl e result, such as brief note or lists, rearrangement of jumbl ed items, a drawing, a spoken summary.[2]This result shoul d be attainabl e only by interaction between participants: so,within the d efinition of the task you often fi nd instructions such as ‘reach a consensus’, or ‘find out everyone’s opinions’.[3]Four Components of a Task: purpose, context, process, product[4]Differences among Exercises, Exercise-tasks and Tasks:➢Tasks are the activities which l et stud ents focus on the compl ete act of communication.➢Exercises are the activities which l et stud ents focus their attention on the individual aspects of language, such as vocabulary, grammar orindividual skills.➢Exercise-tasks are the activities which helps the stud ents to master the individual aspects of language by using them in certain kinds ofcontexts.[5]The Principles in Designing Tasks:➢authenticity principl e➢form-function principl e➢task d epend ency principl e➢l eaning by d oing➢scaffol ding[6]steps in designing tasks:➢Think about stud ents' needs, interests, and abilities➢Brainstorm possibl e tasks➢Evaluate the list➢Choose the language items➢Prepare materials[7]Types of Tasks➢listing➢ord ering and sorting➢comparing➢problem solving➢sharing personal experience➢creative tasks➢jigsaw tasks➢d ecision-making tasks➢opinion exchange tasks3.PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production)1)Differences between PPP and TBL T[1]The way stud ents use and experience language in TBLT is radicallydifferent from PPP.➢Free of language control➢ A genuine need to use language to communicate➢ A free exchange of id eas➢Appropriateness & accuracy of language form in general, not production of a singl e form➢ A genuine need for accuracy and fluency[2]TBLT can provid e a context for grammar teaching and form-focusedactivities. PPP is different in this aspect.➢ A task-established context➢Encouraged to think, analyze, not simply to repeat, manipulate and apply➢ A more varied exposure to natural language➢Language forms not pre-selected for focus➢Learner-free selection of language➢TBLT cycl e lead from Fluency to accuracy (+fluency)➢In TBLT Integrated skills practiced4.Total Physical Response1)Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method devel oped byJames Asher who advocates the coordination of speech and action.2)Language is taught through physical (motor) activity.3)Features:[1]TPR reveals structuralist or grammar-based views of language.According to Asher, the verb, especially the verb in the imperative, asthe central linguistic motif around which language use and l earning areorganized.[2]The language l earning theory in TPR is behaviorism. Learning iseffective and meaningful through stimulus-response action.[3]The objective of a TPR course is to d evelop l earners’ communicativeability through the use of action-based drills in the imperative form.[4]TPR syllabus is a sentence-based one with teaching items of grammarand vocabulary. However, the focus is not on the structure, but onmeaning in a way that grammar points and vocabulary items areselected according to situations in which they are used.[5]The l earning and teaching activities in TPR are imperative drills such asord ers, commands or instructions, which are used to elicit physicalactions and activity on the l earner.[6]TPR l earners are listeners and performers. They are required torespond and monitor and evaluate their own progress.[7]The teacher in TPR is active, directing the classroom interaction andturn taking to make sure everything goes well.4)Merits[1]Physical activity helps retain the language.[2]Learning is mad e a matter of effortless process.[3]It gives due attention to right-brained l earning, which is supposed topreced e left-brain language processing.[4]It facilitates stud ents to communicate uninhibitedly.5)Demerits[1]It may not appeal to l earners as they advance in their competence.[2]A l ot of compl ex language structures cannot be effectively incorporatedinto the imperative.[3]Learners’ needs for unrehearsed language cannot be met by suchdramatic nature of language learning.[4]It does not have basic textbooks, which may be difficult for bothteachers and l earners.4. The English curriculum and coursebooks1.Curriculum: Curriculum refers to the programme of studies of an educationalinstitution. It refers to the substance of what is taught in a given subject: (a)d efining objectives, (b) d etermining content, (c) indicating some sort ofsequence or progression.2.Syllabus: A syllabus provid es a focus for what shoul d be studied, along with arational for how the content shoul d be sel ected and ord ered.1)Characteristics of a Syllabus:[1]consists of a comprehensive list of content items (words, structures,topics) and process items (tasks, methods)[2]is ord ered (easier, more essential items first)[3]has explicit objectives (usually expressed in the introduction)[4]is a public d ocument[5]may indicate a time schedul e[6]may indicate a preferred method ol ogy or approach[7]may recommend materials3.coursebook:1)d efinition: A coursebook is a textbook of which the teacher and, usually,each stud ent has a copy, and which is in principl e to be foll owedsystematically as the basis for a language course. Coursebooks are best seen as a resource in achieving aims and objectives that have already been set in terms of l earner needs.2)Rol e of coursebooks:[1]Coursebooks should not d etermine the aims themselves or becomeaims.[2]The rol e of the coursebook is to be at the service of teachers andl earners but not to be their master.[3]The aims of the coursebook should correspond as cl osely as possibl e tothe aims of the teacher, and both shoul d seek to meet the needs of thel earners to the highest degree.3)英语教学材料包括教科书以及教师用书、练习册、活动手册、读物、音视频材料、挂图、卡片、教学实物、软件等。