《语言教学的流派》课程教案Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching1、Approach and method2、Language teaching --- second language teaching or foreign language teachingThis book is a book on the history of language teaching, but it’s more than that. According t o the authors, the aim of this book is to present an objective and comprehensive picture of a particular approach or method. The authors have avoided personal evaluation, preferring to let the method or approach speak for itself and allows readers to make their own appraisals. So this book is not intended to popularize or promote particular approaches or methods described. It is designed to give the teacher or teacher trainee a straightforward introduction to commonly used an less commonly used methods, and a set of criteria by which to critically read, question, and observe methods. The goal is to enable teachers to become better informed about the nature, strengths, and weaknesses of methods and so they can better arrive at their judgments and decisions.第一章 A brief history of language teaching 外语教学简史在这章中，我们将了解两种传统的教学法：The Grammar-Translation Method （语法翻译法）和The Direct Method（直接法）第二章The nature of approaches and methods in language teaching 外语教学法理论与方法的性质本章为以后的分析立下了一个基本的理论分析框架(framework)。

在这个框架中，教学法包括三个部分：1、Approach（理论）：语言理论和学习理论2、Design（设计）：教学目的、大纲、教学活动形式、学生角色、教师角色、教材的作用3、Procedure（教学步骤）This chapter will present a model for the description, analysis, and comparison of methods. This model will be used as a framework for the subsequent discussions and analyses of particular language teaching methods and philosophies.第三章至第十章是根据第二章中所立的基本理论分析框架对八派语言教学法进行描述和分析。

第三章The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching 口语法和情景法第四章The Audiolingual method 听说法第五章Communicative Language Teaching 交际法第六章Total Physical Response 全身反应法第七章The Silent Way 沉默法第八章Community Language Learning 社团学习法第九章The Natural Approach 自然法第十章Suggestopedia 暗示法Where a method or approach has extensive and acknowledged links to a particular tradition in second or foreign language teaching, this historical background is treated in the first section of the chapter.Where a method or approach has no acknowledged ties to established second or foreign language teaching practice, historical perspective is not relevant. In these cases the method is considered in terms of its links to more general linguistic, psychological, or educational traditions.第一章 A brief history of language teaching 外语教学简史This chapter provides a background for discussion of contemporary methods and suggests the issues we will refer to in analyzing these methods.Changes in language teaching methods throughout history have reflecteda.Recognition of changes in the kind of proficiency learners need (oral proficiency or readingcomprehension)b.Changes in theories of the nature of language and of language learning.一、500年前：1、拉丁语的地位2、拉丁语的教学法3、the decline of Latin4、受拉丁语教学法影响的modern language（如英语、德语、法语等等）的教学法这种方法就是The Grammar-Translation Method二、The Grammar-Translation Method1、对这种方法的评价2、这种教学法的主要特点：7点the goal of foreign language learningreading and writing/speaking and listeningvocabulary selectionsentenceaccuracygrammarthe student’s native language3、对这种教学法的批评三、Language teaching innovations in the 19th century1、Increased opportunities for communication: oral proficiency2、Individual language teaching specialists:C. Marcel: emphasized the important meaning in learningT. Prendergast: proposed the first “structural syllabus”F.Gouin: “series”四、The Reform Movement1、语言学的发展：The International Phonetic Association（1886年）2、Reformer 的观点Henry Sweet: The Practical Study of Languages（1899年）Wilhelm Vietor: Language Teaching Must Start Afresh共同的观点：6点the spoken languagephoneticshear the language firstwords and sentencesthe rules of grammartranslation3、natural methods 的兴起，其中一种就是众所周知的Direct Method五、The Direct Method1、倡导者：Gouin ；Sauveurfoundation: natural language learning principles2、Berlitz Method :principles and proceduresguidelines3、drawbacks六、The Coleman Report：1929 in the United States七、method 到底是什么？the goals of language teachingthe basic nature of languagethe selection of language contentprinciples of organization, sequencing and presentationthe role of the native languageprocessbest teaching techniques and activities and circumstancesParticular methods differ in the way they address these issues. We need to present a model for the description, analysis, and comparison of methods.Question for discussion:从语法翻译法到直接法，有了哪一些进步？500 years ago, Latin was the dominant language of education, commerce, religion, and government in the Western world. But Latin was not a language of spoken and written communication. It was a dead language. Children enter grammar school to learn Latin in order to read classical works of famous Latin writers such as Virgil, Ovid, and Cicero and to develop intellectual abilities. Latin was taught through rote learning of grammar rules, translation and practice in writing sample sentences.In eighteenth century, “modern” languages such as English, French and Italian began to enter European schools, and they were taught using the same way that were used for teaching Latin. Textbooks consisted of abstract grammar rules, lists of vocabulary, and sentences for translation. These sentences were constructed to show the grammar rules and had no relation to the language of real communication.By the nineteenth century, this approach based on the study of Latin had become the standard way of studying foreign languages in schools, which became known as the Grammar-Translation Method.What were the principal characteristics of Grammar-Translation Method?1、the goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order tobenefit form the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study.2、Reading and writing are the major focus.3、Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts, and words are taught through bilingual wordlist, dictionary study, and memorization.4、The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. This focus on the sentence is adistinctive feature of the method.5、Accuracy is emphasized.6、Grammar is taught deductively---by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are then practicedthrough translation exercises.7、The student’s native language is the medium of instruct ion.Explain new items and make comparisons between the two languages.The goalHow to teach words?How to teach grammar?What is emphasized?The role of the sentenceThe role of native languageIn the mid- and late nineteenth century, the Grammar-Translation Method was questioned and rejected in European countries. In the mid nineteenth century, increased opportunities for communication among Europeans created a demand for oral proficiency in foreign languages, but the public education system, that is secondary schools, was seen to be failing in its responsibilities.In Germany, England, France, new approaches to language teaching were developed by individual language teaching specialists. Each of them use a specific method for reforming the teaching of modern languages.Marcel, Prendergast, GouinEducators recognized the need for speaking proficiency rather than reading comprehension, grammar, or literary appreciation as the goal of foreign language programs; there are an interest in how children learn languages, which prompted attempts to develop teaching principles from observation and reflections about child language learning. But the ideas and methods of these innovators such as Marcel, Prendergast, Gouin were developed outside the context of established circles of education, so their ideas failed to receive widespread support or attention.By the end of the nineteenth century, teachers and linguists began to write about the need for new approaches to language teaching. This effort became known as the Reform Movement in language teaching.From the 1880s, the discipline of linguistics was revitalized. Phonetics—the scientific analysis and description of the sound systems of languages—was established. Linguists emphasized that speech, rather than the written words, was the primary form of language. In 1886, the International Phonetic Association was founded, the International Phonetic Alphabet was designed. The IPA was to used to record accurately the sounds of any language in written forms. One of the earliest goals of the association was to improve the teaching of modern language. It advocated:1、study the spoken language2、phonetic training—to establish good pronunciation habits3、the use of conversation texts and dialogues4、grammar is taught inductively5、teaching new meaning through establishing association within the target language rather than byestablishing association with the mother tongueLinguists too became interested in the controversies that emerged about the best way to teach foreign languages. Henry Sweet thought that teaching approaches should be based on a scientific analysis of language and a study of psychology. He set forth four principles for the development of teaching method:1、select carefully what is to be taught2、imposing limits on what is to be taught3、arranging what is be taught in terms of the four skills4、grading materials from simple to complexGerman scholar Welhem Vieter strongly criticized the inadequacies of Grammar-Translation Method and stressed the value of training teachers in the new science of phonetics. He argued that training in phonetics would enable teachers to pronounce the language accurately. In his opinions, speech patterns, rather than grammar, were the fundamental elements of language.Although the reformers in the late nineteenth century often differed in the specific procedures they advocated for teaching a language, in general they believed that:1、the spoken language is primary, methodology should be oral-based2、phonetics should be applied to teaching and to teacher training3、listening first4、words should be presented in sentences, sentences should be practiced in meaningful context5、grammar should be taught inductively6、no translationThese principles provided the theoretical foundations for a principled approach to language teaching. They also reflect the beginnings of the discipline of applied linguistics-----that branch of language study concerned with the scientific study of second or foreign language teaching and learning.And at the same time, there was an interest in developing principles for language teaching out of naturalistic principles of language learning, such as are seen in first language acquisition. This led to natural methods and the development of what came be known as the Direct Method.In fact at various times through the history of language teaching, attempts have been made to make second language learning more like first language learning. Montaigne described how he was entrusted to a guardian who addressed him exclusively in Latin for the first years of his life, since Montaigne’s father wanted his son to speak Latin well.In the nineteenth century, L. Sauveur used intensive oral interaction in the target language, employing questions as a way of presenting and eliciting language. His method was refered to as the Natural Method. Sauveur argued that a foreign language could be taught without translation, or the use of the learner’s native tongue, if meaning was conveyed directly through demonstration and action.In 1884, the German scholar Franke wrote on a monolingual approach to teaching. According to Franke, a language could best be taught by using it actively in the classroom. Rather that using analytical procedures that focus on explanation of grammar rules in classroom teaching, teacher must encourage direct and spontaneous use of the foreign language in the classroom. Learners are able to induce rules of grammar. The teacher replace the textbook in the early stages of learning. Known words would be used to teach new words, using demonstration and pictures.Direct Method was the most widely known of the natural methods. It was officially approved in France and Germany at the turn of the century and became widely known in the United States through its use by Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz in successful commercial language schools. In face, Berlitz referred to the method in his schools as the Berlitz Method.Principles and procedures:1、target language only2、everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught3、oral communication skills were build up in a carefully graded progression organized aroundquestion-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes4、grammar was taught inductively5、new teaching points were introduced orally.6、Concrete vocabulary and abstract vocabulary7、Speech and listening comprehension8、Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasizedGuidelines for teaching oral language in contemporary Berlitz schools.The Direct Method was quite successful in private schools because of the high motivation of paying clients and the use of native-speaking teachers. But it overemphasized and distorted the similarities between naturalistic first language learning and classroom foreign language learning and fail to consider the practical realities of the classroom. Also, it lacked a sound basis in applied linguistic theory, and for this reason it was often criticized by the reformers of the Reform Movement. It required teachers who were native speakers or had native-like fluency in the foreign language. It was largely dependent on the teacher’s skills, and not all teachers were proficient enough in the foreign language. Critics also pointed out that sometime a simple brief explanation in the students native tongue would have been a more efficient way to comprehension.By the 1920s, use of the Direct Method in noncommercial schools in Europe has declined. In France and Germany it was modified into versions that combined some Direct Method techniques with more controlled grammar-based activities.A study begun in 1923 on the state of foreign language teaching concluded that no single method could guarantee successful results. The goal of trying to teach conversation skills was considered impractical in view of the restricted time available for foreign language teaching in schools, the limited skills of teachers, andthe perceived irrelevance of conversation skills in a foreign language for the average American college student. The study—published as the Coleman Report—advocated that a more reasonable goal for a foreign language course would be a reading knowledge of a foreign language, achieved through the gradual introduction of words and grammatical structures in simple reading texts.The main result of this recommendation was that reading became the goal of most foreign language programs in the United States.To British applied linguist Henry Sweet, the Direct Method offered innovations at the lever of teaching procedures but lacked a thorough methodological basis. Its main focus was on the exclusive use of the target language in the classroom, but it failed to address many issues that Sweet thought more basic. In 1920s and 1930s applied linguists systematized the principles proposed earlier by the Reform Movement and so laid the foundations for what developed into the British approach to teaching English as a foreign language. Subsequent developments led to Audiolingualism in the United Stated and the Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching in Britain.We have seen from this historical survey some of the questions that prompted innovations and new directions in language teaching in the past:1、What should the goal of language teaching be?Conversational proficiency, reading, translation, or some other skills2、What is the basic nature of language?3、What are the principles for the selection of language content?4、What principles of organization, sequencing, and presentation best facilitate learning?5、What should the role of the native language be?6、What processes do learners use in mastering a language?7、What teaching techniques and activities work best and under what circumstance?Particular methods differ in the way they address these issues. In the next chapter we present a model for the description, analysis, and comparison of methods. This model will be used as a framework for our subsequent discussion and analyses of particular language teaching methods and philosophies.第二章外语教学法理论和方法的性质In this chapter, we will clarify the relationship between approach and method and present amodel for description, analysis, and comparison of methods. And this model will be used as a framework for our subsequent discussions and analyses of particular language teaching methods and philosophies.一、Approach and method1、the model of Edward Anthony （1963）approach : a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teachingand learningmethod : an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language materialtechnique : which actually takes place in a classroomAnthony’s model serves as a useful way of distinguishing between different degrees of abstraction and specificity found in different language teaching proposals.2、the model of Mackey （1965）Mackey’s model of language teaching analysis concentrates on the dimensions of selection, gradation, presentation, and repetition underlying a method. (textbooks)3、Anthony’s model 的不足：a)Nothing is said about the roles of teachers and learners.b)It fails to account for how an approach may be realized in a method, or for how method andtechnique are related.4、Our model ( revised and extended Anthony’s model )approach---design---procedureA method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by a design, and ispractically realized in procedure.二、Approach: the nature of language and language learning1、Theory of language: three different theoretical views of language and the nature of language proficiencyStructural view : l anguage is a system of structurally related elementsThe target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elementsof this system.Function view : language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaningmeaning and functionInteractional view : language is a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relationsand for the performance of social transactions between individuals.patterns of exchange and interaction or the inclinations of learners2、Theory of language learningA learning theory underlying an approach or method responds to two questions:a.What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning?Process-oriented theories : habit formation; induction; inferencing; hypothesistesting; generalizationb.What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning processes to beactivated?Condition-oriented theories : the nature of the human; physical context in which languagelearning takes place举例说明： Natural Approach (process and condition)Counseling-learning (conditions)Total Physical Response (process and condition)Silent Way (conditions)三、Design1、ObjectiveDifferent theories of language and language learning influence the focus of a method.Linguistically oriented or product-oriented objectives:oral skillsgeneral communication skillsbasic grammar and vocabularyProcess-oriented objectives判断教学法的objectives是process-oriented or product-oriented需要考虑两个因素：a、how much emphasis is placed on vocabulary acquisition and grammatical proficiencyb、how grammatical or pronunciation errors are treated in the method2、Content choice and organization: the syllabussubject matter(what to talk about) and linguistic matter(how to talk about)content issues: the principles of selection and gradationa prior syllabuses and a posteriori syllabuses3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesthe use of different kinds of activitiesdifferent uses for particular activity typesactivity types4、Learner rolesthe types of activities learners carry outthe degree of control learners have over the content of learningthe patterns of learner groupings adoptedthe degree to which learners influence the learning of othersthe view of the learner as processor, performer, initiator, problem solver5、Teacher rolesTeacher roles are related to the following issues:the types of functions teachers are expected to fulfillthe degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes placethe degree to which the teacher is responsible for determining the content of what istaughtthe interactional patterns that develop between teachers and learnerslearner-teacher relationships:asymmetrical kindssymmetrical kinds6、The role of instructional materialsthe primary goal of materialsthe form of materialsthe relation of materials to other sources of inputthe abilities of teachers四、procedurethree dimensions:the use of teaching activities(drills, dialogues, information-gap activities) to present new language and to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative, or other aspects of the targetlanguagethe ways in which particular teaching activities are used for practicing languagethe procedures and techniques or content of their utterances or sentencesClassroom techniques, practices, and behaviors observed when the method is usedresources in terms of time, space, and equipment used by the teacherinteractional patterns observed in lessonstactics and strategies used by teachers and learners when the method is being used在第二章讲解结束后，对第二章提出的教学法分析的基本理论框架做一总结，并要求学生一定要把握这一理论框架，因为这是后面进行教学法流派分析的基础。