n 某项诉讼请求的强制执行是以法院令状这 种特殊诉讼形式的存在为前提的，而这就 使最初的普通法表现为由类似于古罗马法 的“诉讼行为”所构成的体系。
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n If a writ existed (in 1227) a claim could be enforced;
n 有法院令状，诉讼请求就要强制执行；
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n No one document, no handful of documents, can properly be sai d to reveal the character of a people or of their government.
n 没有哪一个或者少数几个文件可以准 确地揭示一国人民或政府的特征。
n 诉讼形式的限制及其提供的有限追索权 导致了衡平法和衡平判例法的产生。
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衡平法
由英国衡平法法院的大法官 在处理专门的申诉案件时， 为避免过分重视令状和程序 方面的技术性问题，而集中 考虑案情的理据得失，最终 发展出有别于普通法的法律 规范，就是衡平法。
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n “Equity”——doing equity
n 公平——行为公平
n deciding ex aequo et bono n 决定公平且善良（拉丁语）
n was first granted by the King, and later by his Chancellor as "keeper of the King' s conscience", to afford relief in hardship cases.
establish the Virginia English colony
The Period of the English Colonies
The Revolutionary War in America (1775-1783)
The Period of the United States
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n there was no recourse for a claim without a writ, the claim did not exist.
n 没有法院令状为前提的诉讼请求，就没有 追索权，因而该诉讼请求也就不存在。
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n This system became inflexible when the "Provisions of Oxford" (1258) prohibited the creation of new writs, except for the flexibility which the "writ upon the case" allowed and which later led to the development of contract and tort law.
n 这一制度在（1258年）“牛津条例”禁 止新令状产生以后变得固定下来；除非 “本案令状”允许了灵活性的例外0/11/24
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n The narrow limits of the forms of actio n and the limited recourse they provid ed led to the development of equity la w and equity case law.
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n When hundreds and thousands of documents strike a consistent not e， over more than a hundred years, we have a right to say that is the keynote.
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enforcement 强制执行； claim 请求； action 诉讼行为； writ 法院令状； classical Roman law 古罗马法
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n The enforcement of a claim presupposed the existence of a special form of action, a writ, with the result that the original common law represented a system of ‘action’ similar to that of classical Roman law.
法国和德国为代表，还有 瑞士、意大利、奥地利、 比利时、卢森堡、荷兰、 西班牙、葡萄牙、日本等
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n Most fields of private law still consist primarily of case law an d the extensive and steadily growing statutory continues to be subject to binding interpretation through case law.
n Record of the present fifty States n 当前50个州的记载
n The intricate network of relationships between States and Nation 各州与联邦之间错综复杂关系的记载
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n 私法的大多数领域主要包括判例法， 以及广泛的不断增加的成文法，这些 成文法继续通过判例法受制于有约束 力的法律解释。
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Knowledge Technique
central importance
for an understanding of American law
n The reports of the United State s Supreme Court fill 350 volume s
n The reports of some States are almost equally voluminous.
联邦最高法院 判例汇编
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州法院判例汇编
n The United States is at once n a very new nation n a very old nation
既年轻又古老的国家
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It is a new nation
Compared with many other countries 与其他国家相比
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Every law has no atom of strength, as far as no public opinion supports it.
Wendell phillips, American leader against slavery
n 判例法
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Common law legal system
普通法系
Case law
形成于英国，包括加拿大，澳 大利亚，新西兰，爱尔兰，印 度、巴基斯坦，马来西亚和新 加坡，香港地区也采用英美法
Civil law legal system
大陆法系/罗马法系
Statutory law
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n The reader who wants to trace the history of law in America is confronted with over 5,000 stout volumes of legal cases.
n 想要探索美国法律历史的人面对的 是5000多巨册的法律案例。
and legal methodolog y
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n The common law is historically the common general law —— with supremacy over local law — — which was decreed by the itineran t judges of the English royal court. 普通法在历史上是普通综合法，由英国 皇家法院的巡回法官颁布的普通综合法 地位高于地方法。
n for events such as those that are lost in the legendary past of Italy or France or England are part of the printed record of the United States
n 那些在意大利、法国或英国过去的 传说中湮没的那些事件，是美国有 文字记载历史的一部分。
n the first one to be made out of an Old World colony.
n 第一个从旧大陆殖民地脱胎而出的国家
n the oldest written constitution the oldest continuous federal system the oldest practice of self-government
n it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States