《西方文化入门》教学大纲张洪芹编写英语专业课程教学大纲824 目录前言 (825)一、概述 (825)二、课程教学目的和基本要求 (825)三、教学基本内容及学时分配 (825)Chapter One Culture in Ancient Greece (828)Chapter 2 Culture in Ancient Rome (829)Chapter 3 Jewish Culture and the Old Testament (830)Chapter 4 Christianity and the New Testament (832)Chapter 5 The Middle Ages and Germanic Culture (834)Chapter 6 Culture during the Renaissance (836)Chapter 7 Culture during the Enlightenment (839)Chapter 8 Romanticism, Realism and Naturalism (841)Chapter 9 Ideology and Philosophy during the 18th and 19th Centuries (842)Chapter 10 The Modernist Movement and Literary Achievement (843)Chapter 11 Historical Development of the Modern Age (845)Chapter 12 Artistic Development in the 20th Century (846)四、教学相关环节 (847)五、参考资料 (847)西方文化入门前言一、概述通过全面、扼要地介绍和评介西方文化的主要内容，让学生接触和了解西方社会在文明进程中在文化、思想、社会与政治制度、艺术、文学、科学、技术等各个方面所取得主要成就，这些文化成就所取得的成因和其内涵，以及这些成就何以对人类社会的进步产生深远的影响。

同时希望通过这门课程的学习，能够进一步激发学生对西方文化的兴趣，能够自觉更广泛、更深入去学习和探索西方文化，了解和借鉴其长处，为中华文明的崛起和发扬光大尽一己之力。

通过中西文化的对比，认识中西文化的长短优劣，正确认识和反思中国传统文化，进而培养面向世界的文化意识。

二、课程教学目的和基本要求《西方文化入门》是本科英语专业高年级的一门专业知识课，供英语专业高年级学生选修。

课程教学主要目的在于使学生了解西方国家的历史、地理、社会、经济、政治、教育等方面的情况及其文化传统，开拓学生的知识视野，丰富和完善学生的人文知识结构，加强学生的人文修养，增强学生对文化差异的敏感性、宽容性和处理文化差异的灵活性，培养学生跨文化交际能力，提高大学生综合素质。

《西方文化入门》教学应达到以下基本要求：了解西方各主要文明时期发展的基本脉络及主要文化特征，形成这种文化现象的历史原因及其影响；熟知各个文化时期一些主要文化领域内的代表性人物和代表性作品；运用图书馆、互联网和工具书查找教材上没有或不够详尽的相关资料，使学生拥有较多的背景知识，提高理解能力，从而达到通过文化来更好的学习语言的目的。

三、教学基本内容及学时分配《西方文化入门》主要涉及西方历史、文学、艺术、哲学、宗教等文化领域，包括该文化的源头（古希腊—罗马文化和犹太—基督教文化），该文化的发展（蛮族文化，教会的发展），其形成法律文化市场变化（文艺复兴、启蒙运动、工业文化等）以及代表西方文化的思想理论，如浪漫主义、现实主义、自然主义、新古典主义、现代派和后现代派。

乌托邦思想、德国古典哲学、马克思主义、达尔文主义、实证主义、功利主义、实用主义、弗洛伊德的精神分析等。

《西方文化入门》共分12个专题：古希腊文化、古罗马文化、犹太文化、基督教文化、日耳曼文化、文艺复兴时期的文化、启蒙运动时期的文化、浪漫主义+现实主义+自然主义思想、十八—十九世纪欧洲的社会和哲学思想、现代主义文化及二十世纪西方文化。

这12个专题包含了西方文化的产生、传播、发展，它们汇合成西方文化的源和流。

学时分配：该课程共开一学期，36学时。

讲授采用专题讲座方式，采用教师讲授与学生参与分析相结合的方式进行，围绕以下中心题目进行扩展，Chapter 1 Culture in Ancient Greece 3学时1. The Early Period of Greek Civilization2. The Development and End of Greek Civilization3. Greek Culture: Greek mythology, religion, philosophy and literature (Socrates, Plato and Aristotle)Chapter 2 Culture in Ancient Rome 3学时1. The Historical Development and Social and Economic Conditions2. Cultural Achievements: Myth, Religion, Literature, History, Philosophy, Art and Architecture825英语专业课程教学大纲826 Chapter 3. Jewish Culture and the Old Testament 3学时1 Jewish History2 Jewish Art and Literature3 Judaism and Jewish Festivals4 Introduction to the Old TestamentChapter 4 Christianity and The New Testament 4学时1. The Background of the Birth of Christianity2. The Development of Christianity3. The Principal Doctrines of Christianity4. The Christian Schism and its Principal Factions5. An introduction to The New TestamentChapter 5. The Middle Ages and Germanic Culture 3学时1. The Setting of the Middle Age2. The Formation and Development of German Culture3. Byzantine Culture4. Medieval Social Ideology5. Literature, Art and PoliticsChapter 6 Culture during the Renaissance 3学时1. Background to the Renaissance2. Source, features and significance3. Cultural achievements of the Renaissance4. Social Ideology and Religious Reformation5. Development of Natural Science6. Beginning of Modern Philosophy7. Classicism and the Cultural SalonChapter 7 Culture during the Enlightenment 2学时1. Background2. Empiricist Influences from Britain3 .Representative Figures and Their Ideas4. Literature and the Significance of the EnlightenmentChapter 8 Romanticism, Realism and Naturalism 2学时1. Romanticism: Characteristics, the Romanticist School and its Achievement2. Realism: Definition and Performance3. Naturalism: Novels and Naturalist artChapter 9 Ideology and Philosophy During the 18th and 19th Centuries 2学时1. English Utilitarianism2. German Social and Philosophical Ideas3. French Utopian SocialismChapter 10 The modernist Movement and Literary Achievement 4学时1. General Condition2. Modernist Trend of Literature3. Modernist Literature in UK and Other Countries西方文化入门4. Literary and Cultural Criticism of Post-ModernismChapter 11 Historical Development of the Modern Age 4学时1. Important Theories and Ideological Schools2. Later Changes in Christian Ideas3. The later Philosophical SchoolsChapter 12 Artistic Development in the 20th Century 3学时1 Background of Modern Art2 Modern Achievements in Painting and Architecture3 Popular Culture827英语专业课程教学大纲828Chapter One Culture in Ancient Greece1. The Early Period of Greek CivilizationIt is generally acknowledged that the earliest representation of Greek civilization is on the island ofCrete. The Cretan society, dated back from 2000-2600BC, was the first important society in the Greek world. The people of Crete were probably from Asia Minor. Their influence on Greek culture was very significant. The leading city of ancient Crete was Knossos. The civilization found on Crete was called Minoan. Minoans achieved their greatest distinction in the grace and beauty of their art. Their art valued style and elegance as can be seen in the great palace of Knossos. Their pottery was highly decorative and showed much sophistication.Cretan culture(克利特岛人的) contributed much to the development of Mycenaean(美锡尼人的)culture initially established by the Achaeans who had moved from elsewhere into the middle and south of Greece. At that time the artefacts developed by Mycenaeans were far beyond those by Cretans. At the end of Mycenaean civilization, the Trojan War had helped to produce two famous epics, Odyssey(奥德赛) and Iliad(伊利亚特), which were initially created in the 11th centuries BC.2. The Development and End of Greek CivilizationGreek civilization clearly demonstrated strong signs of vigorous and dynamic development in its long history. These marvellous achievements ensured a long period of increasing prosperity and power for the nation and provided lasting influences for the later development of other European countries. Greek civilization came to its peak during 499-449BC. Around 146BC a split doomed opened the way for the invasion of later aggressors like Macedonia, Gaul and Rome.3. Greek Culture: Greek mythology, religion, philosophy and literatureHistorically Greek culture is of a rich variety, lasting value and wide influencearound the world in the categories of mythology and religion, philosophy, literature, art and science.In Greek myth all the gods live on Mount Olympus, and Zeus is the chief keeping order with thunderbolts, both in heaven and on earth. The most prominent feature of Greek myth is that both man and god assume the same form. Two of the best-known Greek myths centre on the Trojan Horse and on Jason. Greek philosophy achieved its high point in the history of human intellectual development, marked by a series of important concepts about materialism, idealism and dialectics, the most influential philosophers were Socrates, Plata and Aristotle. Socrates has a reputation for irony and a sense of humour, Plato developed models for an ideal state in his Republic, Symposium(论文集) and Law, and Aristotle was the greatest thinker and most learned person of the ancient times. Greek literature is considered to consist of epic, lyrical poetry and drama. Greek art and its application to practical situations are also of certain significance in understanding its achievements, as demonstrated by Athenian architecture, sculpture and painting.西方文化入门 Chapter 2 Culture in Ancient Rome1. The Historical Development and Social and Economic ConditionsAncient Rome was located exactly where modern Rome is today, along the western coast of central Italy. The Italian city of Rome is the birthplace of the Roman Empire and, therefore, the origin of Roman culture. The early Rome was ruled by seven kings, later by two consuls and a senate. Conflict with Carthage followed and the most influential event was the hundred years’ war. In the two centuries after Augustus took power, the Roman Empire reached its culmination. Roman society was established as a hierarchy based on legal distinction between the ruling class and the ruled, the rich and the poor, aristocracy and the ordinary people, the citizen and non-citizen, with the patricians maintaining their favoured position for almost three centuries. The time when the Roman emperors ruled followed the demise of the Roman Republic.2. Cultural Achievements: Myth, Religion Literature, Philosophy, Art and ArchitectureInfluenced y Greek culture and myth, Romans took more interest in Greek gods and extended their own beliefs to the wholesale adoption of the Olympian pantheon of gods. Almost every Roman god has a Greek counterpart. The average Roman had freedom to choose his or her god to believe in. Apart from embodying myths, Roman literature was principally made up of poetry, prose and drama. Among the best-known Roman poets are Virgil, Horace and Ovid. Roman philosophy was greatly influenced by the Greek philosophers, especially y the Stoic and Epicurean schools. Roman philosophers provided practical explanation and application of philosophical principles, which developed the genre to some extent.Roman art is not just the art of the emperors, senators, and aristocracy, but ofall the peoples of Rome's vast empire, including middle-class businessmen, freedmen, slaves, and soldiers in Italy and the provinces. Curiously, although examples of Roman architecture, sculpture, painting, and decorative arts survive in great numbers, few Roman artists and architects are known by name today. In general, Roman monuments were designed to serve the needs of their patrons rather than to express the artistic personality of their makers.The Ancient Romans were well known for their architectural ability. They constructed great buildings such as the Collesseum, auquaducts(地下水管道) and the Pantheon(罗马万神殿).829英语专业课程教学大纲830Chapter 3 Jewish Culture and the Old Testament1. Jewish HistoryJewish history is the history of the Jewish people, faith, and culture. Jewishhistory encompasses nearly four thousand years and hundreds of different populations. The wholehistory of Jewish social and cultural development is pervaded byparadoxical historical events. In the 16th BC Jews settled on both sides of the Jordan River. The Jewish people weathered the storms of all kinds of ethnic difficulties and disasters over the long periods of being exiled from one country to another in Europe and elsewhere in the world.2. Jewish Art and LiteratureJewish people have made remarkable cultural achievements and have producedmany important figures in philosophy, literature, art and other areas of the humanities.3. Judaism and Jewish FestivalsJewish culture has contributed considerably to the Western historicaldevelopment by providing substantial religious ingredients and many other aspects of the whole basic framework of Western society. In the early period of the Jews’ settlement in Palestine, they had religious beliefs such as worship of trees, stone pillars and all kinds of natural forces. During their Babylonian Captivity(巴比伦之囚), Jews began to establish a new religion. Only from that time was monotheistic Judaism, exclusive among all the other religions and protective of its priesthood and aristocracy, finally set up.A complete collection of all the documents left by the ancient Hebrews wascompiled into a book called the Bible. The Judaist Bible was adopted by Christianity, which was renamed The Old Testament to distinguish it from The New Testament. The later period of Judaism, had the objectives not too difficult from Christianity. Worship of the Holy Temple was no longer practiced after its ruin and the migration of the Jewish people to every corner of the world. Only Moses’ Ten Commandments (摩西十诫)and the rabbis’ interpretations of the prophet’s doctrines were retained as the core of Judaism.The Ten Commandments were God’s instructions which were turned into the following commandments:i. You shall nave no other god;ii. You shall not speak the name of the Lord lightly;iii. Remember the Lords’ Day so as to keep it holy. For six days you shall you shall work and do all your labour, but the seventh day is consecrated to God:iv. Honour your father and your mother;v. You shall not kill;vi. You shall not commit impurity;vii. You shall not steal;viii. You shall not lie;ix. You shall have no impure desire;x. You shall not covet what belongs to your neighbour4.Introduction to the Old Testament西方文化入门The Bible of Judaism is the same as the The Old Testament of Christianity and so totals 39 books and falls into three parts: Pentateuch(摩西五书), Prophets(《先知书》), and Hagiographa(《圣录》) and Apocrypha(旧约·伪经).Pentateuch is the first part of The Old Testament and consists of five books, which are Genesis(创世纪), Exodus(出埃及记), Leviticus(利未记), Numbers(民数记) and Deuteronomy(申命记). It includes history, biography, religious doctrine, law, proprieties, songs, family history and stories, covering almost everything in relation to all the Jewish traditions and culture.Genesis describes God’s creation of the world and traces the history of the Hebrews from Abraham to Joseph. It includes stories such as Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, the Great Flood, the Tower of Babel, the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and how Joseph went to Egypt and so on.Exodus describes how Moses led the people of Israel out of Egypt in the 13th or 14th centuries BC, including their life in Egypt and how they suffered from oppression. Also it tells how Aaron prevailed over the Pharaoh to agree to their departure, how they went across the Red Sea, and traveled through the Sinai Desert.Leviticus is a carefully composed book of laws and proprieties, with the records of Jewish rites, offerings and sacrifices and so on.Numbers is an account of how the Jews, under the leadership of Josue after Moses’ death, fought against Canaanites and won.Deuteronomy contains the final teachings of Moses, and was doubtless inspired by the 8th century BC prophetic movement in Israel, which was usually identified with the book that inspired Josiah’s reform in 621BC.The second part of the The Old Testament is the Prophets, comprised of 21 books. Six of them continue to tell the Jewish story from the conquest of Canaan to their captivity in Babylon. It is called The Former Prophets(前先知). The Latter Prophet(后先知)s consist of three principal prophets and twelve minor prophets.831英语专业课程教学大纲832Chapter 4 Christianity and the New Testament1. The Background of the Birth of ChristianityThe earliest Christian document is The Revelation of John (圣约翰启示录)written in the latter periodof the first century AD. It mentioned only a religious society in Asia Minor. The formation of the mystic elements of Christianity followed on from many prophecies about the arrival of the Messiah. Then He was equated to the Almighty God or the “Son of Man”. Hence, the foundation of Christianity had been well laid by the 2ed century BC. The name of Jesus spread first from mouth to mouth and was recorded only in the second century AD in the four Gospels of The New Testament. A pious religious believer, St. Paul, made the greatest contribution to the final establishment of Christianity. He wrote his famous “espistles” or Christian doctrines, embodying the central beliefs of early Christianity The Gospels(福音书), The Messengers’ Letters(信徒短信) and The Revelation of John before it was collected into The New Testament as the Christian doctrine.2. The Development of ChristianityChristianity was widely accepted. The early followers of the religion were mostly poor people, salves and even criminals. As time moved on, Christianity appealed to growing numbers of people even the upper class people in the Roman Empire. The development of Christianity witnessed a new epoch in the 4th century AD, when Christianity turned into a National Religion of the Roman Empire. And in the 6th century AD with the proclamation of Christianity as the only state religion, Christianity entered a stage of unprecedented development.3. The Principal Doctrines of ChristianityIn the history of Christianity, there are two documents which contributed much to an accurate definition and unified knowledge of Christianity, namely The Nicene Creed(尼西亚教义) and The Orchiland Agreement(奥吉兰教规).The Nicene Creed was passed at the Nicaea Council hosted by Constantine the Great and the delegates. The Nicene Creed has been binding on all Christians ever since. It actually describes the fundamental beliefs of the Christian faith.In AD 529, the Orchiland Council(奥吉兰会议) agreed to what Saint Augustine proposed about sin and redemption. The following document was a result of that council. Because of the sin committed y the first man, one can not make any free choice. Hence if without God’s benefaction, no one could willingly love God or trust God or offer kind service for God… All those who have received baptism and received God’s benefaction have the sight and duty, with Jesus; help and cooperation, to do everything, which could save the souls if he laboured devotedly.4. The Christian Schism and its Principal FactionsIn 1054, the Christian church in Constantinople refused to accept the supremacy of the Roman Pope and was thus excommunicated by the latter. Christianity was initially divided into two parts: the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Eastern Church. The second split took place in the 1520s, Christianity fell into three parts: the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Eastern Church and Protestantism, all of which claiming true representatives of Christianity.Some of their principal assertions are Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism. Roman Catholicism has its own view and interpretation of the proper relation the church and the state, and ofother Christian traditions based upon Roman Catholic doctrine. To a certain extent, this doctrine is similar to that held by orthodox Christians of every label and consists of a belief in The Bible. Roman Catholic doctrine appears to go beyond the shared beliefs, which constitute the doctrine of each of the Christian groups. Eastern Orthodoxy(东正教) and Roman Catholicism(天主教) are largely in agreement, while Protestantism differs from both Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholiscism on several issues. For example, Roman Catholic theology defines and numbers the sacraments differently from Orthodox theology; but, over against Protestantism, Roman Catholic doctrine insists, as does Eastern Orthodoxy, upon the centrality of the seven sacraments(圣事)baptism(洗礼), confirmation(坚振), Eucharist(圣体), extreme unction(给临终者涂油礼), penance, matrimony(婚配), and holy orders as channels of divine grace.5. An introduction to The New TestamentThe New Testament contains altogether 27 parts, which were completed in the latter half of the first century AD. They are all of the recollections of the early Christians. The earliest manuascript was written in Greek and possibly translated from Arabic, the Palestine language. It consists of the four Gospels, a book of Acts of the Apostles(使徒行书), Letters(短信), and The Revelations of John.833Chapter 5The Middle Ages and Germanic Culture1. The Setting of the Middle AgeThe period in European history from the collapse of the Roman Civilization inthe 5th AD to the period of the Renaissance in the 14th century is termed generally as the Middle Ages. The Middle Age nonetheless provided the foundation for the transformations of the Humanists’ own Renaissance. The period from the fall of Rome to about the year 1000 was called the Dark Ages, also called Late Antiquity, or the Early Middle Ages. Apart from the flowering of the Carolingian court established by Charlemagne, no large kingdom or other political structure arose in Europe to provide stability. The only force capable of providing a basis for social unity was the Roman Catholic Church. The Middle Ages therefore present the confusing and often contradictory picture of a society attempting to structure itself politically on a spiritual basis. This attempt came to a definitive end with the rise of artistic, commercial, and other activities anchored firmly in the secular world in the period just preceding the Renaisance.2. The Formation and Development of German CultureThe Carolingian (王朝的) culture was developed under the influence of theChristian Church. This was first demonstrated in the monopoly of education by the Church. Those who received education were mostly priests and monks. Many of the teaching staff in parish schools was priests. The language used in teaching was Latin and the seven subjects, seven arts, namely, grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. Carolingian literature, education and culture in general advanced through borrowing from late Roman and contemporary Byzantine models and techniques. Artists added decorations to enhance books for priests to use in their religious services to enhance their importance. In the Roman basilica style, these illuminations usually demonstrated what artists felt and thought, rather than what they saw. However, Charlemagen’s chapel at Aachen borrowed form the architectural style of the Byzantine imperial palace in its octagonal concept. This highlighted the imperial nobility and majesty of the structure by joining the imageries of heaven and earth.The cultural tradition of Greece and Rome was well preserved and evencontinued in a way, but the development of the Eastern Roman Empire was based on its absorbing some eastern culture. Therefore the cultural significance became more complex and sophisticated than its predecessor Roman culture. Among the foremost cultural accomplishments of the Eastern Church was the founding of the University of Constantinople whose head, Leo, and his successors turned it into a successful institute of learning in literary and religious subjects. Its inheritance and development of the tradition of classical culture was demonstrated in many respects, such as the founding of Neoplatonism, Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy with eastern mysticism. The principal books of this period included Tours among the Oriental countries, The History of the Justinian War, and The Secret History. The architecture of Byzantium(拜占庭) was quite characteristic of both the classical ages and that of the eastern countries.3. Byzantine CultureThere was a glorious tradition of Byzantine historiography, which wasmaintained by a number of figures like George Acropolites, historian of the Empire of Nicaea, George Pachymeres, Gregoras and finally, Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus, who wrote his memoirs after834abdicating in 1354.4. Medieval Social IdeologyIn the early and middle periods of the Medieval Age in the dominant scholarlystudies, more emphases were placed on the defence of the divinity. Ideas concerning all kinds in feudal societies were associated with religious theologies. A major principle was to regard all human life and social phenomena as being created and controlled by God. The development of productive forces and scientific and technological advances in the middle and later periods of the Middle Ages, thus prepared the ideological conditions for the Renaissance with its resurgence of art and literature. Scholasticism owed its birth to having provided a means to resist anti-Christian tendencies.Scholasticism was initiated by the Medieval theologians to defend and consolidate the status of Christianity, which had been threatened by increasing suspicion among both its disciples and the ordinary people. The scholars used Plato and Aristotle’s philosophies to explain Christian doctrines. Scholasticism maintained holiness of the Christian doctrines by meticulous reasoning and inference. Scholasticism regarded the Bible as the only source of absolute truth, making reason submit to religious faith. In opposition to Scholasticism were the ideas of materialism, represented by men such as Averroes and Roger Bacon. Averroes denied the absurd ideas of religion and asserted that philosophy should adopt rational thinking as its basis. Another representative was the Englishman Roger Bacon, whose interest lay in mathematics and experimental sciences, especially optics. He made a distinction between philosophy and theology, and between rational and philosophy on the one land and various religious beliefs on the other.5. Literature, Art and PoliticsMedieval literature was represented in poems, particularly in hymns expressingthe intense religious feelings of love of God. Foremost of these literary works were epics like The Song of Roland(French), The Song of the Cid(Spanish), The Song of the Niebelungs(German). Italian poem such as Dante’s Divine Comedy was an epoch-making event. The artistic achievements of the Medieval Age mostly related to religious representations. This was evidenced in the architecture, sculpture and painting of the period. Gothic buildings were in a phase of rapid development and remained the major style in most of European countries into the 16th century and onwards. Typical buildings were Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Cologne Cathedral(科隆大教堂) in Germany, Canterbury and Lincoln Cathedrals in Britain, and Milan Cathedral in Italy.835Chapter 6 Culture during the Renaissance1. Background to the RenaissanceThe Renaissance was an important stage in the historical process of the Westerncivilization and marked the turning point from the Middle Ages to the modern era in the development of Western culture. Economic and intellectual changes during the Renaissance both helped to speed up Western social and cultural development and hence prepared the necessary conditions for rapid progress in political, social and ideological areas of the Modern Age.2. Source, Features and SignificanceThere are many sources contributing to Renaissance. During the reign ofCharlemagne the Great(查理曼大帝742-814) seven courses established at the school. During the 12th century, a cultural and economic revival took place in Europe; many historians trace the origins of the Renaissance to this time. The balance of economic power slowly began to shift from the region of the eastern Mediterranean to that of Western Europe. The 13th century saw the climax of medieval civilization. The classic form of Gothic architecture and sculpture and been fully established by the time. Overall, the break-up of feudal structures, the strengthening of city-states in Italy, and emergence of national monarchies in Spain, France, and England, as well as such cultural developments as the rise of folk culture and popular literature had occurred in most European countries by the end of the Middle Ages. Furthermore, changes in secular education, particularly the founding of universities, culminated in the birth of a self-consciously new age with a new spirit. One can not help looking back to the classical learning of Greece and Rome as the inspiration for what has come to be known as the Renaissance.3. Cultural Achievements of the RenaissanceThe cultural achievements of the Renaissance can be summed up into 2 phases:art in the early period and art in the latter periods. Realist tendency was obvious in the art of the early period of the Renaissance, and visible mostly in the use of religious subject matter drawn from Biblical and mythological legends and figures. Works such as those of Giotto di Bondone(1266-1337) in painting, Donatello and Ghiberti in sculpture are perfect examples. Another famous figure is Filippo Brunelleschi(1377-1466) whose mathematically based architectural designs helped solve the problem of the pillarless dome. He tried to portray his structural figures by making them recede into the background and hence appear three-dimensional.In painting, artists of the later period of the Renaissance mastered the technique of portraying nature on the basis of an insightful assimilation of classical heritage. High Renaissance art emerged in the latter period of the Renaissance. It flourished for about 35 years, when Rome revolved around three towering figures: Leonard da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564), and Raphael (1483-1520). The Virgin of the Rocks(岩间圣母), Mona Lisa and The Last Supper are considered the most representative works of Da Vinci’s. Genesis and Final Judgment and the sculpture David were representatives of Michelangelo Buonarotti(米开朗琪罗). Just as well known as Da Vinci and Michelangelo was Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520) who established his reputation with his famous fresco The School of Athens which included over fifty figures altogether. The fourth well-known artist from this period was Tiziano Vecellio (提香·韦切利奥) (1477-1576) commonly known as Titian in Venice.It was in art that the spirit of the Renaissance achieved its clearest formation. Art, since the 836。