Chapter 7 Language change⏹Sound change⏹Morphological and syntactic change⏹V ocabulary changeMorphological and syntactic change⏹Change in “agreement” rule⏹Change in negation rule⏹Process of simplification⏹Loss of inflectionsV ocabulary change⏹Addition of new words⏹Loss of words⏹Changes in the meaning of wordsAddition of new words⏹coinage(创新词)⏹clipped words(缩略词)⏹blending(紧缩法)⏹acronyms(词首字母缩略词)⏹back-formation(逆构词法)⏹functional shift⏹borrowingCoinage----A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e.g.⏹walkman⏹Kodak⏹Xerox⏹Ford⏹Benz⏹ToyotaClipped words----The abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g.⏹gym—gymnasium⏹memo—memorandum⏹disco—discotheque⏹fridge—refrigeratorBlending----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g.⏹smog—smoke + fog⏹motel—motor + hotel⏹camcorder—camera + recorderAcronyms----Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words, e.g.⏹CBS---- Columbia Broad casting system⏹ISBN----International Standard Book Number⏹WTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO APEC OPEC CAD SARSBack-formation----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.⏹edit ← editor⏹hawk ← hawker⏹beg ← beggar⏹baby-sit ← baby-sitterFunctional shift----Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g.⏹Noun→verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake…⏹Verb→noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat…⏹Adj.→verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow…⏹Adj.→noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the impossible…Borrowing⏹----When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. The following are some of the loan words in English (see more in P100-101).⏹Latin bonus education exit⏹German beer waltz quartz⏹Chinese tea kowtow sampan⏹Russian sputnik commissar vodka⏹Arabic zero algebra alcoholLoss of words⏹Words can be lost from a language as time goes by. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language.⏹Beseem →to be suitable⏹Wot →to know⏹Gyve → a fetter⏹Wherefore →whyChanges in the meaning of words⏹Widening of meaning⏹Narrowing of meaning⏹Meaning shiftWidening of meaning⏹Holiday: [+specific] holy day[+general] any rest day⏹Tail: [+specific] tail of a horse[+general] tail of any animalOther examples: virtue, quarantine, companionNarrowing of meaning⏹hound: any doga special kind of dog⏹girl: young person of either sexyoung people of female sex⏹deer: any animala particular kind of animal⏹meat: foodedible part of an animal⏹corn: graina particular grainOther examples: knight, wifeMeaning shift⏹inn: a small, old hotel or pubwell-known, nice hotel⏹nice: ignorant (1000 years ago)good, fine⏹lust: pleasurewith negative and sexual overtones⏹silly: happynaïve, foolishOther example: gay, CadillacSome recent trends⏹Moving towards greater informality⏹The influence of American English⏹The influence of science and technologyThe influence of science and technology⏹Space travel⏹Computer and internet language⏹EcologyCauses of the language change⏹The rapid development of science and technology;⏹More and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created;⏹“ Economy of memory” results in grammar simplification;⏹Regularization of exceptional plural forms provides another example for analogical change.Causes of Lexical Change1. PoliticsGround Zero, Osamaniac, Blairism, CIS, Hamas, Tamil Tiger2. Science and TechnologyDVD, PDA, squark, hacker, cursor3. Economic DevelopmentBushnomics, Blairnomics, Blairnomicsdownsize, human resource, electronic commerce4. Social lifeYuppies, DINK, SOHO, physically challenged,5. Environmentbio-diversity, ecosystem, ecocide, green consumer, green speech, tree houses, twigloo, intensive farming, pesticide6. Health and Fitnessmad cow disease, bird flu, foot and mouth disease, SAD, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)7. Other Aspects: extreme skiing, bungee jumping, hydrospeeding。