2 Categorization and Categories
Category: 范畴，the class of things in cognition.(桌子，家具， 人) Categorization: 范畴化, the process of classifying our experience into different categories based on commonalities and differences.
3.1 Conceptual Metaphor 概念隐喻 Target domain 目标域 The conceptual domain that is understood in terms of the source domain (he) Metaphor: X(target) is Y(source) (1) Structural metaphors 结构隐喻 以一种概念的结构来构造另一种概念，是两种概念叠 加，将谈论一种概念的各方面的词语用语谈论另一概 念。 TIME IS MONEY Spend, waste, save 花费，浪费，节约
2.3 Levels of categorization
(1)Basic level 基本等级范畴 (篱笆，女人和狗) The easiest, most direct and basic level. What is this? A car, book, desk, tree, dog… 基本等级范畴具有明显的原型成员 Short, mono-syllable words
Chapter 10 Cognitive Linguistics
1. Introduction Cognition 认知: the action or faculty of knowing or learning An approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.
cognition originates from the interaction between subject and object, cognitive structure is postnatally constructed, intelligence and knowledge comes from postnatal experience and practice.
3.1 Conceptual Metaphor 概念隐喻
(3) Ontological mataphors 实体隐喻 以实体为基础的抽象的概念表达 The ship is coming into view. (visual field as container) LIFE IS A JOURNEY We’ll just have to go our separate ways.
3.2 Categorization
Parasitical category 寄生范畴 Depending on basic categories Later than basic categories Long, complex words
3.2 Categorization
(3) Subordinate level 下属范畴 Parasitical category depending on basic category 基本范畴从两个方向进行下属范畴切分 一，从属到种：狗——哈巴狗 二，从整体到部分：树——树枝，树叶 Morphologically complex words, compound nouns…
2.3 Levels of categorization Features of basic categories: a. 感知：其成员具有能从总体上感知的外形，有单 个成员的意象，人们识别其成员最快 b. 交流：最简洁，使用最广泛的中性词语，儿童最 早习得并且最早进入词汇 c. 知识组织：范畴成员的大多数特征都被储存为基 本范畴属性
2.2 The prototype theory 原型理论 Gestalt: 完形，格式塔，物理的、生物的、心理的 或象征的结构或形态，其构成因素并不是各组成部分 间的简单相加，而是一种完整的结构或形式 Gestalt principles: (1)相似原则，相似的物体（形状、功能）被感知为 同类物体 (2)连续原则，连续不断的物体被感知为整体。
2.2 The prototype theory 原型理论 FRUIT orange/ apple Prototype 原型，the best examples of a category Categories are organized according to prototypes Members of a category differ in prototypicality 典型性 BIRD: sparrow, ostrich, penguin
3. Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy 3.1 Conceptual Metaphor 概念隐喻 Metaphor is not only a figure of speech, but a important way for us to organize experiences. Understanding one conceptual domain(域) or cognitive domain in terms of another conceptual domain. He is a tiger. Source domain 源(认知)域 the conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain. (tiger)
We organize experiences and information in categories and schemas 认知是客体作用于主体的结果，是大脑经过加工对客 观世界重新认识的过程
1. Introduction We recognize the world from two aspects: a. General 家具 basic 桌子 more specific 饭桌
3.2 Categorization
(2)Superordinate level 上位范畴 Most general categories No enough features in common among members 家具 —— 桌子，椅子，柜子… Vehicle —— car, bus, truck … Plant —— tree, flower, grass … 家族相似性，family resemblance ： abc, bcd, acd, abd, cba …
BIRD: +2 wings, +2 legs, +feathers …
Binary division of the world Clear boundaries All members have equal status
2.1 The classical theory 古典理论
Shortages: a. sometimes, there is no clear-cut boundaries between categories b. the status of members are not equal e.g. RECTANGLE
George Lakoff, Women, Fire and Dangerous Things —— What Categories Reveal About the Mind <女人、火和危险 事物——范畴揭示了思维的什么奥秘> 1987 George Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Metaphor We Live By 我 们赖以生存的隐喻 1980
1. Introduction Philosophical foundation: Experiential realism经验现实主义 cognitive world or cognitive structure.
1. ion Psychological foundation: Interactionism:
3.1 Conceptual Metaphor 概念隐喻
MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN 产量提高； 出口下降 HIGH STATUS IS UP; LOW STATUS IS DOWN 上层社会； 社会底层 RETIOANL IS UP; EMOTIONAL IS DOWN The discussion fell to the emotional level . We put our feelings aside and had a high-level intellectual discussion CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN Wake up. He fell asleep.
3.1 Conceptual Metaphor 概念隐喻 (2) Orientational metaphors方位隐喻 参照空间方位而组建的一系列隐喻概念 Co-occurrence in experience MORE IS UP addition rise Based on human physical and cultural experience. HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN I’m feeling up/ down.
1. Introduction b.