Meaning in context Pragmatics
Background
To this point we have looked at linguistic forms.
Particular topics have included the structure of sound, words, clauses, etc., and how meanings are composed.
New model:
A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking E.g., “It is cold in here.”
Locutionary act (言内行为) an act of saying something
E.g., “I do” “I name this ship Elizabeth.” “I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.” “I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”
Austin’s model of speech acts
Directives
Trying to get the hearer to do something,
E.g.,
I order you to leave right now. You’d better go to the clinic.
Commissives
Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action,
Illocutionary act (言外行为) ★ an act performed in saying something
Perlocutionary act (言后行为) an act performed as a result of saying something
Austin’s model of speech acts
Assertives/representatives
Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true,
E.g.,
I’m certain I have never seen the man before. The earth is a globe.
E.g.,
I promise to come. I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.
Declarations
Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs,
(2)
-- H: Okay.
(3)
Searle’s classification of speech acts
Five categories (illocutionary point 言外之意)
Assertives/representatives (陈述) Directives (指令) Commissives (承诺) Declarations (宣布) Expressives (表达)
sentence
Topics studied in pragmatics
Speech acts Principle of conversation Cross cultural pragmatic failure …
Speech acts 言语行为
People use language to accomplish different types of acts.
Austin’s model of speech acts
Early model:
Constatives (叙述句)
statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable;
Performatives (施为句)
sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
Four maxims 准则:
The maxim of quality The maxim of quantity The maxim of relation The maxim of manner
Blatant violation of the maxims conversational implicature 会话含义
the primary speech act the secondary speech act
Primary: the speaker’s goal of communication Secondary: the means by which he achieves his goal
E.g., Look at the words on the following boards.
Principle of conversation 会话原则
E.g., -A: would you like to come to our party tonight?
E.g.,
ral background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.) the relationship between the speaker and the hearer …
Pragmatics vs. Semantics
Semantics: (no context) the study of the literal meaning of a sentence
Indirect speech acts
Principle of conversation 会话原则
To converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate.
the Cooperative Principle (CP) 合作原则 (Paul Grice 1975)
Indirect speech acts
Direct language vs. Indirect language
Traditionally:
Direct language:
Function
Sentence
state a fact
declarative “John got an A on the test.”
declining someone’s request for help … utterance meaning:
based on the sentence meaning; realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a context; identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the
How these linguistic objects are used?
Pragmatics: language use in context
Roughly: the study of how to do things with words
Generally: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication
caused to your people.
Searle’s classification of speech acts
Ex.
I think the film is moving. Open the window, please. I solemnly swear that he had got it. I will take good care of your child. I now appoint you chairman of the committee. Your money or your life! You are fired. I’m sorry for being late.
Pragmatics vs. Semantics
Distinction: whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered
Context: the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer
Ex.
Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple
-- (the telephone rings)
-- H: That’ the phone.
(1)
-- W: I’m in the bathroom.
E.g., “The bag is heavy.”
“The bag is heavy”
sentence meaning:
a bag being heavy
utterance meaning:
an indirect, polite request
asking the hearer to help him carry the bag
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