形而上学
“我”到底是什么?
“我”并不包括身体
“我”不是具有身体形状的“我” The body could be part of the dream scenario 身体也许只是梦中的情境 I know I have a body through sense experience 通过感官才得知我有一个身体。 “I” can exist independent of the body.
亚里士多德的“实体”
三类实体:可毁灭的可感实体 (eg.) 永恒的可感实体 (eg.) 永恒的不运动的可分离的不可 感的实体 (eg.) 前两种实体是Physics要考察的对象 后一种实体,就是形而上学要考察的对象: 它是前两类实体变化和生灭的原因(形式 因) 即“不动的动者”(Unmoved mover)
笛卡尔的身心二元论(mindbody dualism)
Descartes’ Life
Birth 1596, France Jesuit education at LeFlesh, standard Aristotelian training Learns law at LePutia Goes travelling Dreams: Commission from God to develop a new, comprehensive science 20’s, writes Rules for the Directions of the Mind 1629, takes up resident in Holland, engages in scientific studies We need to lay the epistemological basis for this new science before it can be developed Meditations, 1641, the founding text of modern philosophy, the book that is intended to replace the Aristotelian textbooks Tutors Queen Christiana in Sweden at 5:00am
῎Εστιν ἐπιστήμη τις ἣ θεωρεῖ τὸ ὂν ᾗ ὄν καὶ τὰ τούτῳ ὑπάρχοντα καθ᾽ αὑτό. αὕτη δ᾽ ἐστὶν οὐδεμιᾷ τῶν ἐν μέρει λεγομένων ἡ αὐτή· οὐδεμία γὰρ τῶν ἄλλων ἐπισκοπεῖ καθόλου περὶ τοῦ ὄντος ᾗ ὄν, ἀλλὰ μέρος αὐτοῦ τι ἀποτεμόμεναι περὶ τούτου θεωροῦσι τὸ συμβεβηκός, οἷον αἱ μαθηματικαὶ τῶν ἐπιστημῶν. ἐπεὶ δὲ τὰς ἀρχὰς καὶ τὰς ἀκροτάτας αἰτίας ζητοῦμεν, δῆλον ὡς φύσεώς τινος αὐτὰς ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι καθ᾽ αὑτήν. εἰ οὖν καὶ οἱ τὰ στοιχεῖα τῶν ὄντων ζητοῦντες ταύτας τὰς ἀρχὰς ἐζήτουν, ἀνάγκη καὶ τὰ στοιχεῖα τοῦ ὄντος εἶναι μὴ κατὰ συμβεβηκός, ἀλλ᾽ ᾗ ὄν· διὸ καὶ ἡμῖν τοῦ ὄντος ᾗ ὄν τὰς πρώτας αἰτίας ληπτέον. (Γ 1, 1003a20-32)
上帝存在,而且不仅存在于心灵中,也存在 于现实中。
The Sudden Shift!
17世纪,笛卡尔(Descartes):近代哲学的 开端 开始有了“ontology”这个词 metaphysics所考察的范围扩大了,亚里士多 德《物理学》中考察的内容也被囊括进来 Christian Wolff:两种不同的“形而上学”: general metaphysics (ontology): the study of Being as such special metaphysics: 具体领域问题的考察, 如人是什么、自由意志等等。
实体(substance)与事物(things)
“Things”
In the Physics and Categories Aristotle defines a substance in 4 jointly sufficient conditions: That underlying subject which endures through change That thing which contains within it a principal of activity; causal resources to act and withstand change Subject of predicates, not predicated of another; has properties Independent of other things logically/causally; selfsufficient
6. 这样描述的上帝或者(1)仅存在于心中; (2)既存在于心中亦存在于现实中。 7.事物当其存在人心中也存在于现实中时比 它仅存在心中的事物更伟大。 (真实存在+存在于心中>仅仅存在于心中) 8. 归谬法所假设的前提:假设上帝仅仅存在 于心中——不信者的观点
9. 我们能够设想出比上帝更伟大的事物。 10. 我们能够设想出比那个与其相比无法设想 出的更伟大的事物的更伟大的事物。 ——which is a contradiction. 11. 因此,上帝仅存在于心中这种观念是错的 。
“Unmoved Mover” & God
亚里士多德“不动的动者”的概念 没有质料的个体 被亚里士多德称为“神” 构成了前两类实体的终极目的——形式因 亚里士多德之后的形而上学呢? Epicurus(伊壁鸠鲁), Stoa (斯多亚), Neo-Platonism (新柏拉图主义): 最高本 体 Being, God!
Meditation II
Descartes cannot doubt that he exists. 但是不能怀疑的是“我存在”这个事实。 Whenever I am doubting, I must exist in order to doubt. The evil genius can deceive me, but I must exist in order for him to deceive me. “I exist” is an indubitable proposition if I am thinking it. 只要我在思考,“我存在”就是明确无误的。 Cogito, ergo sum.
形而上学
刘阿斯 (2011-2012秋季学期)
An Outline
Substance Merelogical universalism and its extreme Composition Problem Identity Realism and anti-realism Substance dualism Person/ Consciousness Freewill
Came down with a flu and died in 1650
怀疑(doubt)作为哲学方法
Normal
Doubt: we doubt something because we have evidence for it. 有证据(并非充分的证据)证明某件事与原来被 认识的情况不符。 Hyperbolic Doubt: I will doubt everything that is possibly false, not just probably false 怀疑一切有可能被怀疑的
It is more efficient to doubt the source of beliefs and ask whether the source is faulty, bringing all following beliefs falling as well. 从信念的根基着手
Sense: not trustworthy 感官:不值得信赖 But can I doubt senses in the best conditions? 例如,晴天、视力好、距离恰当的时候 去观察一个建筑。
亚里士多德的“形而上学”研究什么?
另称为“第一哲学”、“智慧”、“神学” “τό τι ηνει τι” “being qua being” “作为存在的存在”即实体(Metaphysics , Γ 2, 1003b15-19 ) 形而上学要研究的就是实体的本原和原因 那么,什么是实体?
My body? cannot be trustworthy either. 身体也要被怀疑。 I can dream, believing what I really think to be true, clear as day. 做梦:梦见的跟清醒时候的情形一样。 Maybe all of sense experience is like a dream, so I’ll doubt it because it is possibly false
Wouldn’t there still be certain truths like 2+2=4? (数学的真理是否可能?)