Emanuel Law Outlines
Contracts
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
I. MEANING OF "CONTRACT"
A. Definition: A "contract" is an agreement that the law will enforce.
1. Written v. oral contracts: Although the word "contract" often refers to a written document, a writing is not always
necessary to create a contract. An agreement may be binding on both parties even though it is oral. Some contracts,
however, must be in writing under the Statute of Frauds.
II. SOURCES OF CONTRACT LAW
A. The UCC: Contract law is essentially common law, i.e. judge-made, not statutory. However, in every state but Louisiana, sales
of goods are governed by a statute, Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code.
1. State enactments: A national drafting body, the National Conference of Commissioners of Uniform State Laws
(NCCUSL) proposes revisions to various UCC Articles from time to time. Each state legislature then makes its own
decision about whether and when to adopt the proposed revision.
a.2003 Revision: The most recent NCCUSL revision of Article 2 is the 2003 Revision, which made some significant
changes, especially in the area of electronic commerce. However, no state has yet adopted this revision, and it does not
look as though that revision will be adopted anywhere in the next few years.
b.Our text: Therefore, when this Capsule (or this book) refers to an Article 2 provision, nearly always (and unless
otherwise specifically noted) the reference is to the pre-2003 version of Article, which has remained essentially
unchanged since its original promulgation in 1957.
2. Common-law: If the UCC is silent on a particular question, the common law of the state will control. See UCC § 1-
103.
Chapter 2
OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE
I. INTENT TO CONTRACT
A. Objective theory of contracts: Contract law follows the objective theory of contracts. That is, a party’s intent is deemed to be
what a reasonable person in the position of the other party would think that the first party’s o bjective manifestation of intent meant. For instance, in deciding whether A intended to make an offer to B, the issue is whether A’s conduct reasonably indicated to one in B’s position that A was making an offer.
Example: A says to B, "I’ll sell you my hou se for $1,000." If one in B’s position would reasonably have believed that A was serious, A will be held to have made an enforceable offer, even if subjectively A was only joking.
B. Legal enforceability: The parties’ intention regarding whether a contract is to be legally enforceable will normally be effective.
Thus if both parties intend and desire that their "agreement" not be legally enforceable, it will not be. Conversely, if both desire that it be legally enforceable, it will be even if the parties mistakenly believe that it is not.
Example: Both parties would like to be bound by their oral understanding, but mistakenly believe that an oral contract cannot be enforceable. This arrangement will be enforceable, assuming that it does not fall within the Statute of Frauds.
1. Presumptions: Where the evidence is ambiguous about whether the parties intended to be bound, the court will follow
these rules: (1) In a "business" context, the court will presume that the parties intended their agreement to be legally
enforceable; (2) but in a social or domestic situation, the presumption will be that legal relations were not intended.
Example: Husband promises to pay a monthly allowance to Wife, with whom he is living amicably. In the absence of
evidence otherwise, this agreement will be presumed not to be intended as legally binding, since it arises in a domestic
situation.
C. Intent to put in writing later: If two parties agree (either orally or in a brief writing) on all points, but decide that they will
subsequently put their entire agreement into a more formal written document later, the preliminary agreement may or may not be binding. In general, the parties’ intention controls. (Example: If the parties intend to be bound right away based on their oral agreement, they will be bound even though they expressly provide for a later formal written document.)
1. Where no intent manifested: Where the evidence of intent is ambiguous, the court will generally treat a contract as
existing as soon as the mutual assent is reached, even if no formal document is ever drawn up later. But for very large
deals (e.g., billion dollar acquisitions), the court will probably find no intent to be bound until the formal document is
signed.
II. OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE GENERALLY
A. Definitions:
1. "Offer" defined: An offer is "the manifestation of willingness to enter into a bargain," which justifies another person
in understanding that his assent can conclude the bargain. In other words, an offer is something that creates a power of
acceptance.
2. "Acceptance" defined: An acceptance of an offer is "a manifestation of assent to the terms thereof made by the
offeree in a manner invited or required by the offer."
Example:A says to B, "I’ll sell you my house for $100,000, if you give me a check right now for $10,000 and promise
to pay the rest within 30 days." This is an offer. If B says, "Here is my $10,000 check, and I’ll have the balance to you
next week," this is an acceptance. After the acceptance occurs, the parties have an enforceable contract (assuming that
there is no requirement of a writing, as there probably would be in this situation).
B. Unilateral vs. bilateral contracts: An offer may propose either a bilateral or a unilateral contract.
1. Bilateral contract: A bilateral contract is a contract in which both sides make promises. (Example: A says to B, "I
promise to pay you $1,000 on April 15 if you promise now that you will walk across the Brooklyn Bridge on April 1."
This is an offer for a bilateral contract, since A is proposing to exchange his promise for B’s promise.)
2. Unilateral contract: A unilateral contract is one which involves an exchange of the offeror’s promise for the
offeree’s act. That is, in a unilateral contract the offeree does not make a promise, but instead simply acts.
Example:A says to B, "If you walk across the Brooklyn Bridge, I promise to pay you $1,000 as soon as you finish." A
has proposed to exchange his promise for B’s act of walking across the bridge. Therefore, A has proposed a unilateral
contract.
III. VALIDITY OF PARTICULAR KINDS OF OFFERS
A. Offer made in jest: An offer which the offeree knows or should know is made in jest is not a valid offer. Thus even if it is
"accepted," no contract is created.
B. Preliminary negotiations: If a party who desires to contract solicits bids, this solicitation is not an offer, and cannot be accepted.
Instead, it merely serves as a basis for preliminary negotiations.
Example: A says, "I would like to sell my house for at least $100,000." This is almost certainly a solicitation of bids, rather than an offer, so B cannot "accept" by saying, "Here’s my check for $100,000."
C. Advertisements: Most advertisements appearing in newspapers, store windows, etc., are not offers to sell. This is because they
do not contain sufficient words of commitment to sell. (Example: A circular stating, "Men’s jackets, $26 each," would not be an offer to sell jackets at that price, because it is too vague regarding quantity, duration, etc.)
1. Specific terms: But if the advertisement contains specific words of commitment, especially a promise to sell a
particular number of units, then it may be an offer. (Example: "100 men’s jackets at $26 apiece, first come first served
starting Saturday," is so specific that it probably is an offer.)
2. Words of commitment: Look for words of commitment– these suggest an offer. (Example: "Send three box tops
plus $1.95 for your free cotton T-shirt," is an offer even though it is also an advertisement; this is because the advertiser
is committing himself t o take certain action in response to the consumer’s action.)
D. Auctions: When an item is put up for auction, this is usually not an offer, but is rather a solicitation of offers (bids) from the
audience. So unless the sale is expressly said to be "without reserve," the auctioneer may withdraw the goods from the sale even after the start of bidding. See UCC § 2-328(3).
IV. THE ACCEPTANCE
A. Who may accept: An offer may be accepted only by a person in whom the offeror intended to create a power of acceptance.
Example: O says to A,"I offer to sell you my house for $100,000." B overhears, and says, "I accept." Assuming that O’s offer was reasonably viewed as being limited to A, B cannot accept even though the consideration he is willing to give is what O said he wanted.
B. Offeree must know of offer: An acceptance is usually valid only if the offeree knows of the offer at the time of his alleged
acceptance.
1. Rewards: Thus if a reward is offered for a particular act, a person who does the act without knowing about the reward
cannot claim it.
C. Method of acceptance: The offeror is the "master of his offer." That is, the offeror may prescribe the method by which the offer may be accepted (e.g., by telegram, by letter, by mailing a check, etc.).
1. Where method not specified: If the offer does not specify the mode of acceptance, the acceptance may be given in
any reasonable method.
2. Acceptance of unilateral contract: An offer for a unilateral contract is accepted by full performance of the requested
act.
Example:A says to B, "I’ll pay you $1,000 if you cross the Brooklyn Bridge." This can only be accepted by A’s act of completely crossing the bridge. (However, the offer will be rendered temporarily irrevocable once B starts to perform, as discussed below.)
3. Offer invites either promise or performance: If the offer does not make clear whether acceptance is to occur through
a promise or performance, the offeree may accept by either a promise or performance.
a. Shipment of goods: For instance, if a buyer of goods places a "purchase order" that does not state how
acceptance is to occur, the seller may accept by either promising to ship the goods, or by in fact shipping the
goods. UCC § 2-206(1)(b).
b. Accommodation shipment: If the seller is "accommodating" the buyer by shipping what the seller knows
and says are non-conforming goods, this does not act as an acceptance. In this "accommodation shipment"
situation, the seller is making a counter-offer, which the buyer can then either accept or reject. If the buyer
accepts, there is a contract for the quantity and type of goods actually sent by the seller, not for those originally
ordered by the buyer. If the buyer rejects, he can send back the goods. In any event, seller will not be found to
be in breach. UCC § 2-206(1)(b).
4. Notice of acceptance of unilateral contract: Where an offer looks to a unilateral contract, most courts now hold that
the offeree must give notice of his acceptance after he has done the requested act. If he does not, the contract that was formed by the act is discharged.
Example: A says to B, "I’ll pay you $1,000 if you cross the Brooklyn Bridge by April 1." B crosses the bridge on time.
As soon as B crosses, a contract is formed. But if B does not notify A within a reasonable time thereafter that he has done so, A’s obligation will be discharged.
5. Acceptance by silence: Generally, an offer cannot be accepted by silence. But there are a few exceptions:
a. Reason to understand: Silence can constitute acceptance if the offeror has given the offeree reason to
understand that silence will constitute acceptance, and the offeree subjectively intends to be bound.
b. Benefit of services: An offeree who silently receives the benefit of services (but not goods) will be held to
have accepted a contract for them if he: (1) had a reasonable opportunity to reject them; and (2) knew or
should have known that the provider of the services expected to be compensated.
c. Prior conduct: The prior course of dealing may make it reasonable for the offeree’s silence to be co nstrued
as consent. (Example: Each time in the past, Seller responds to purchase orders from Buyer either by shipping,
or by saying, "We don’t have the item." If Seller now remains silent in the face of an order by Buyer for a
particular item, Seller’s sil ence will constitute an acceptance of the order.)
d. Acceptance by dominion: Where the offeree receives goods, and keeps them, this exercise of "dominion" is
likely to be held to be an acceptance.
6.“Implied-in-fact” contracts: Situations in which the parties do not expressly exchange an offer and acceptance, but
in which they indicate by their conduct their understanding that a contract is being formed, are sometimes called
“implied-in-fact” contracts.
a.Benefit of services: For instance, an offeree who silently receives the benefit of services will be held to have
accepted a contract for them if he: (1) had a reasonable opportunity to reject them; and (2) knew or should
have known that the provider of the services expected to be compensated.
b.Distinction: Be sure to distinguish the true implied-in-fact contract situation (in which each party, by his
conduct, knowingly leads the other to believe that they have an agreement) from a situation in which at least
one party fails to take any action that would justify the other in believing that a contract is intended.
i.Intra-familial transactions: For example, when one party performs small-scale services for another
and the two are close relatives, if neither party expressly brings home to the other that payment is
expected, the court is likely to conclude that the services were a gift rather than a commercial
transaction.
V. ACCEPTANCE VARYING FROM OFFER
A. Common law "mirror image" rule: Under the common law, the offeree’s response operates as an acceptanc e only if it is the
precise mirror image of the offer. If the response conflicts at all with the terms of the offer, or adds new terms, the purported acceptance is in fact a rejection and counter offer, not an acceptance.
Example: A writes to B, "I’ll sell you my house for $100,000, closing to take place April 1." B writes back, "That’s fine; let’s close April 2, however." At common law, B’s response is not an acceptance because it diverges slightly from the offer, so there is no contract.
B. UCC view: The UCC rejects the "mirror image" rule, and will often lead to a contract being formed even though the
acceptance diverges from the offer. Wherever possible, the UCC tries to find a contract, so as to keep the parties from weaseling out (as they often try to do when the market changes). This entire "battle of the forms" is dealt with in UCC § 2-207, probably the most important UCC provision for the Contracts student.
1. General: At the most general level, § 2-207(1) provides that any "expression of acceptance"or "written
confirmation"will act as an acceptance even though it states terms that are "additional to or different from" those
contained in the offer.
Example: Buyer sends a "purchase order" containing a warranty. Seller responds with an "acknowledgement," containing
a disclaimer of warranty. There will be a contract under the UCC, even though there would not have been one at
common law.
2. Acceptance expressly conditional on assent to changes: An "expression of acceptance" does not form a contact if it is
"expressly made conditional on assent to...additional or different terms."§ 2-207(1). So if the purported "acceptance"
contains additional or different terms from the offer, and also states something like, "This acceptance of your offer is
effective only if you agree to all of the terms listed on the reverse side of this acceptance form," there is no contract
formed by the exchange of documents.
a. Limited: Courts are reluctant to find that this section applies. Only if the second party’s form makes it clear
that that party is unwilling to proceed with the transaction unless the first party agrees to the second party’s
changes, will the clause be applied so as to prevent a contract from forming.
3. "Additional" term in acceptance: Where the offeree’s response c ontains an "additional" term (i.e., a clause taking a certain position on an issue with which the offer does not deal at all), the consequences depend on whether both parties are merchants.
a. At least one party not merchant: If at least one party is not a merchant, the additional term does not prevent
the offeree’s response from giving rise to a contract, but the additional term becomes part of the contract only if the offeror explicitly assents to it.
Example: Consumer sends a purchase order to Seller, which does not mention how disputes are to be resolved.
Seller sends an acknowledgement form back to Consumer, which correctly recites the basic terms of the deal (price, quantity, etc.), and then says, "All disputes are to be arbitrated."
Even though the acknowledgement (the "acceptance") differed from the purchase order by introducing the arbitration term, the acknowledgement formed a contract. However, since at least one party (Consumer) was not a merchant, this additional term will only become part of the contract if Consumer explicitly assents to that term (e.g., by initialing the arbitration clause on the acknowledgement form).
b. Both merchants: But if both parties to the transaction are "merchants,"then the additional term
automatically becomes part of the contract, as a general rule. (Example: On facts of prior example, if Buyer was
a merchant, the arbitration clause would become part of the contract.) However, there are two important
exceptions to this "additional term becomes part of the contract" rule:
i. Materiality: The addition will not become part of the contract if it is one which "materially alters"
the contract. For instance, a disclaimer of warranty will always be found to materially alter the
contract, so if the seller includes such a disclaimer in his acknowledgement form after receiving the
buyer’s purchase order, the disclaimer will not become part of the contract.
ii. Objection: If the offeror objects to having the additional term become part of the contract, it will
not so become.
4. Acceptance silent: If an issue is handled in the first document (the offer), but not in the second (the acceptance), the acceptance will be treated as covering all terms of the offer, not just those on which the writings agree.
Example: Buyer’s purchase order says that disputes will be arbitrated; Seller’s acknowledgement is silent on the issue of arbitration. The Seller’s form will be found to be an acceptance, an d disputes will be arbitrated.
5. Conflicting terms in documents: If an issue is covered one way in the offering document and another (conflicting) way in the acceptance, most courts apply the "knock out" rule. That is, the conflicting clauses "knock each other out" of the contract, so that neither enters the contract. Instead, a UCC "gap-filler" provision is used if one is relevant; otherwise, the common law controls.
Example:Buyer’s purchase order states that disputes will be litigated in New York state court. Seller’s acknowledgement form states that disputes will be arbitrated. Most courts would apply the "knock out" rule, whereby neither the "New York courts" nor "arbitration" clauses would take effect. Instead, the common law –allowing an ordinary civil suit to be brought in any state that has jurisdiction – would apply.
6. Response diverges too much to be acceptance: If a purported acceptance diverges greatly from the terms of the offer, it will not serve as an acceptance at all, so no contract is formed.
7. Contract by parties’ conduct: If the divergence referred to in the prior paragraph occurs (so that the exchange of documents does not create a contract), the parties’ conduct later on can still cause a contract to occur. Section 2-207(3)
provides that "conduct by both parties which recognizes the existence of a contract is sufficient to establish a contract for sale although the writings of the parties do not otherwise establish a contract."
Example:Buyer’s purchase order is for 100 widgets at $5 each. Seller’s acknowledgement form is for 200 widgets at $7 each. Buyer does not say anything in response to the acknowledgement form. Seller ships the 200 widgets, and Buyer keeps them. Even though the exchange of documents did not create a contract, the parties’ c onduct gave rise to a contract by performance.
a. Terms: Where a contract by conduct is formed, the terms "consist of those terms in which the writings of
the parties agree, together with any supplementary terms incorporated under any other provisions of this Act."
§ 2-207(3). For instance, the price term would be a "reasonable price at the time for delivery," as imposed by § 2-305’s price "gap filler."
8. Confirmation of oral contract: If the parties initially reach an oral agreement, a document later sent by one of them memorializing the agreement is called a "confirmation."
a. Additional terms in confirmation: If the confirmation contains a term that is additional to the oral agreement,
that additional term becomes part of the contract unless either: (1) the additional term materially alters the oral agreement; or (2) the party receiving the confirmation objects to the additional terms.
b. "Different" term in confirmation: If a clause contained in the confirmation is "different" from a term on the
same issue reached in the oral agreement, the new clause probably does not become part of the agreement.
9.“Terms of follow”contracts (a/k/a “rolling contracts): Goods are sometimes sold under what is sometimes called a “terms to follow” or “rolling” contract. In such a contract, the buyer, usually a consumer, orders and pays for the goods without seeing most of the contract terms. The detailed terms are then contained on or in the box containing the goods. The buyer is told that if she does not agree with the detailed terms, she has a certain time within which to return the goods for a full credit. Courts are split on how to analyze such rolling contracts.
a. The “not formed until receipt”approach: Some courts say that §2-207 doesn’t apply, and that no
contract is formed until the buyer has received the goods and has kept them for beyond the prescribed return period. This approach tends to yield a contract that includes all of the seller’s terms, on the theory that the action of the buyer in keeping the goods rather than returning them should be interpreted as an acceptance by performance, and acceptance that includes the buyer’s assent to all of the seller’s proposed terms.
Example: P orders a personal computer from D (the manufacturer) by phone> No forms are exchanged at the time. The box arrives, containing the computer and a document of “Standard Terms,”which include an arbitration clause. The Standard Terms say that P can return the computer for a full refund anytime within 30 days of receipt; thereafter, the computer is no longer returnable, and P will be deemed to have accepted the Standard Term s. P doesn’t return, then sues, and D contends that the arbitration clause became part of the contract.
Some courts would hold for D, on the theory that (1)§2-207 doesn’t apply because it’s not a “battle of the forms” (only D has used a form); and (2) no contract was formed until P kept the computer for 30 days, at which point P was deemed to have accepted the Standard Terms, including the arbitration clause. Therefore, the arbitration clause would be held to have become part of the contract. [Cf. Hill v. Gateway 2000]
b. Contract formed under §2-207 at time of order: But other courts hold that §2-207 does apply to the
rolling-contract scenario, and that a contract is therefore formed at the time of the order. Under this approach, the buyer is usually considered to be the offeror, the seller is an offeree who is proposing additional or different
二、承诺（一）承诺的概念1、承诺的概念承诺，又称接盘，是受要约人同意要约的意思表示。（21条）要约一经承诺，合同即告成立。2、承诺的要件承诺须具备以下要件：（1）承诺必须由受要约人作出受要约人只能是要约人愿意与之建立法律拘束关系的对象，故只有受要约人或其委托的代理人享有承诺的权利。［案例2-5］英国1908年鲍威尔诉李氏一案中，原告致函某校董会愿任校长一职，校董会表决同意，某校董未经授权将决议内容告诉了原告。但校董会在下一次会议上推翻了前次决议，决议另聘他人为校长。原告以该校董会违约为由要求赔偿损失。法院认为，校董会未委托任何人向原告传达承诺，该传达无效。（2）承诺必须向要约人作出既然要约人在要约中表明了一经受要约人承诺即受拘束的意思，故承诺只有向要约人或其代理人作出才有意义。在合同毋需要约人亲自履行的情况下，承诺也可以向要约人的继承人作出。（3）承诺必须在要约确定的期限内到达要约人（23条1款）若要约规定了承诺期限，则承诺应当在要约确定的期限内到达要约人。要约以电报或者信件作出的，承诺期限自电报交发之日或者信件载明的日期开始计算。如果信件未载明日期，自投寄该信件的邮戳日期开始计算。要约以电话、传真等快速通讯方式作出，承诺期限自要 约到达受要约人时开始计算。（24条） 要约没有确定承诺期限的，承诺应当依照下列规定到达：①要约以对话方式作出的，应当即时作出承诺，但当事人另有约定的除外；②要约以非对话方式作出的，承诺应当在合理期限内到达。（23条2款） 对合理期限的长短，我国合同法未做具体规定。《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》规定：须适当地考虑到交易的情况，包括发价人所使用的通讯方法的迅速程度。《国际商事合同通则》规定：应在考虑了交易的具体情况，包括要约人所使用的通讯方法的快捷程度的一段合理的时间内作出承诺。史尚宽先生将“依通常情形可期待承诺到达时期”，即“合理期间”，分为三段：①要约到达于受要约人的期间；②做承诺所必要的时问；③承诺的通知到达要约人所必要的时间。其中，①与③的期间依通讯方式确定，如依邮寄或电报为要约或回答通常所必要的期间。如果要约及承诺的通知，途中有非常事变（火车障碍、暴风雨等）的迟延，要约人如果知道该情况的发生，应当斟酌以定其达到所必要的期间。此必要期间，依其通知 合理的承诺 期限的性判断
第三十三条当事人采用信件、数据电文等形式订立合同的，可以在合同成立之前要求签订确认书。签订确认书时合同成立。 确认书较正式合同简单，是买卖双方在通过交易磋商达成交易后，寄给双方加以确认的列明达成交易条件的书面证明，经买卖双方签署的确认书，是法律上有效的文件，对买卖双方具有同等的约束力。 确认书实际上是与承诺联系在一起的，双方达成协议以后，一方要求以最后的确认为准，这样确认书实际上就是对其要约所做出的最后的，明确的，肯定的承诺。 确认书是承诺的重要组成部分，是判断是否做出承诺的要素之一。 合同的签订一般要经过要约与承诺两个过程。 要约为当事人一方向他方提出订立合同的要求或建议。提出要约的一方称要约人。在要约里，要约人除表示欲签订合同的愿望外，还必须明确提出足以决定合同内容的基本条款。要约可以向特定的人提出，亦可向不特定的人提出。要约人可以规定要约承诺期限，即要约的有效期限。在要约的有效期限内，要约人受其要约的约束，即有与接受要约者订立合同的义务；出卖特定物的要约人，不得再向第三人提出同样的要约或订立同样的合同。要约没有规定承诺期限的，可按通常合理的时间确定。对于超过承诺期限或已被撤销的要约，要约人则不受其拘束。 承诺受要约人按照所指定的方式，对要约的内容表示同意的一种意思表示，任何有效的承诺，都必须具备以下条件： (1)承诺必须由受要约人作出。要约和承诺是一种相对人的行为。因此，承诺必须由被要约人作出。被要约人以外的任何第三者即使知道要约的内容并对此作出同意的意思表示，也不能认为是承诺。被要约人，通常指的是受要约人本人，但也包括其授权的代理人。无论是前者还是后者，其承诺都具有同等效力。 (2)承诺必须是在有效时间内作出。所谓有效时间，是指要约定有答复期限的，规定的期限内即为有效时间；要约并无答复期限的，通常认为合理的时间(如信件、电报往来及受要约人考虑问题所需要的时间)，即为有效时间。 (3)承诺必须与要约的内容完全一致。即承诺必须是无条件地接受要约的所有条件。据此，凡是第三者对要约人所作的“承诺”；凡是超过规定时间的承诺，(有的也叫“迟到的承诺”)；凡是内容与要约不相一致的承诺，都不是有效的承诺，而是一项新的要约或反要约，必须经原要约人承诺后才能成立合同，关于承诺有效要件，大陆法系各国要求较严，非具备以上三要件者则不能有效。而英美国的法律对此采取了比较灵活的态度。例如，美国《统一商法典》规定，商人之间的要约，除要约中已明确规定承诺时不得附加任何条件或所附加的条款对要约作了重大修改外，被要约人在承诺中附加某些条款，承诺仍可有效。承诺可以书面方式进行，也可以口头方式进行。通常，它须与要约方式相应，即要约以什么方式进行，其承诺也应以什么方式进行。对于口头要约的承诺，除要约有期限外，沉默不能作为承诺的方式，承诺的效力表现为要约人收到受要约人的承诺时，合同即为成立。口头承诺，要约人
中美合同法要约和承诺制度比较研究 郭科永K201102188 摘要：中国和美国合同法的要约和承诺制度既有共同点，也有显著区别，本文通过对中美合同法要约和承诺制度的比较研究，以期对减少中美间的贸易摩擦有着积极的作用。 关键词：要约承诺美国 随着经济全球化和政治多极化的到来，全球的贸易大国中国和美国的贸易往来越来越频繁，因此加强对两国合同法律制度的了解，不仅会减少贸易摩擦，而且反过来也能促进贸易增长。 一、我国合同法的规定 我国合同法第14条规定：“要约是希望和他人订立合同的意思表示，该意思表示应当符合下列规定：(一)内容具体确定：(二)表明经受要约人承诺，要约人即受该意思表示约束”。什么是具体确定的并没有明说，但合同法12条规定：“合同的内容由当事人约定，一般包括以下条款：（一）当事人的名称或者姓名和住所；（二）标的；（三）数量；（四）质量；（五）价款或者报酬；（六）履行期限、地点和方式；（七）违约责任；（八）解决争议的方法。”13条也规定受要约人对以上几项内容的变更就是对要约内容的实质性变更，构成新要约。由此可见这八项内容应该是对意思表示构成要约很重要．但合同法第61、62条又规定对质量、价款或者报酬、履行地点、履行期限、履行方式、旅行费用约定不明确的可以补充协议，不能达成协议的，法律也规定了相应的解决办法，所以这几项也不是必需的。合同法111
条规定对于违约责任没有约定或者约定不明确的，可以按照标的性质和损失大小，合理选择要求对方承担修理、更换、重作、退货、减少价款或者报酬等违约责任。至于解决争议的方法，按照中华人民共合同民事诉讼法和仲裁法的规定，有协议的按协议，没有的或者按照事后的协议申请仲裁，或者直接到法院解决。 由以上分析可见，我国合同法对要约的内容要求只有标的和数量以及确定的当事人是必需的，比《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》的规定还简单，该法中规定要约至少应包含标的、价格或确定价格的方法、数量或确定数量的方法三项内容，否则即会因缺乏明确性而对要约人或受要约人缺乏约束力。同时规定了要约人的有限制的撤销权，无论是从内容上还是从态度上我国合同法都尽量增强要约的有效性，由此可见对促进合同交易的决心。 在我国，受要约人于承诺时亦有很大的权利。一方面可以在不改变要约的实质性内容的前提下，决定合同的内容；另一方面，我国采取的是承诺通知到达生效的基本原则，所以受要约人在承诺到达要约人之前或之时都有撤销权。 二、美国合同法的规定 美国《统一商法典》和很多合同法著作，也对要约作了各种各样的定义，但基本不会离开要约是一方当事人对某些明确条款所作的同意表示这一含义。至于什么是明确条款，美国合同法认为必须达到可强制执行，否则不构成合同。如数量、期限等没有确定，就不能构成强制执行。但美国更重视要约的法律效用，即要约产生受要约人的承
《合同法》课程指导性教学大纲 一、课程名称：《合同法》 二、课程类型：专业课 三、适用对象：高职高专 四、课程标准：合同法是关于合同的法律规范的总称，是民商法的重要组成部分。在市场经济条件下，一切交易活动都是通过缔结和履行合同来完成的，合同关系是市场经济社会最基本的法律关系。《合同法》的颁布和实施，结束了三足鼎立的合同法时代，实现了合同法律的统一对维护市场经济秩序和保护交易当事人的合法权益将发挥巨大的作用，同时也为交易的发展和市场的繁荣提供了重要的保障。本学科为法学专业学科体系中的一门既有理论性又有实践性学科，通过对合同法理论及其实际应用的研究和学习，使学生系统掌握合同法的基本理论、基本制度、基本原则，培养学生运用合同法理论和知识以及有关法律、法规分析和解决经济生活中的实际问题的能力；同时引导学生树立意思自治、诚实信用、公平正义的理念，以推进我国社会主义法治建设的步伐。本课程主要讲授合同和合同法的概念，合同法的基本原则，合同的订立制度，合同的效力，合同的履行，合同的变更和转让，合同权利义务的终止以及违约责任制度等内容。通过学习,使学生系统地、准确地理解和掌握合同法的基本原理、具体法律制度及其相应的规范，并能够在实践中灵活地运用，分析和处理各种合同实务问题。 五、总课时： 本课程共64课时，课时分配如表：
六、课程具体教学内容与要求： （一）合同法概述 【教学内容】 1、合同法的概念和本质 2、我国合同法的发展 3、合同法的总则和分则 4、合同法的基本原则 【教学要求】 1、了解合同法的基本概念和调整对象 2、掌握刑法的基本原则 【重点、难点】 重点：合同法的基本原则 难点：诚实信用原则的理解和适用 【教学方法】 听课（含授课2与案件讨论、作业1）3学时 【重点习题】 如何理解合同法的基本原则？ （二）合同概述与合同的订立 【教学内容】 1、合同的分类 2、合同成立概述 3、要约 4、承诺 5、格式合同 6、合同的形式 7、合同成立的时间和地点 【教学要求】 1、了解合同的几种及其意义 2、掌握合同成立的构成条件和格式合同的特殊法律规定 【重点、难点】 重点：合同成立的构成条件 难点：格式合同的特殊法律规定 【教学方法】 听课（含授课5与案件讨论、作业1）6学时，模拟法庭4学时【重点习题】
四、合同落空理论 克雷尔诉亨利 Court of Appeal,1903. 2 K.B.740. 沃恩·威廉斯法官，认为本案的真正问题是在很多英国法院的判决中被采纳的罗马法的基本原则在英国法的适用范围的问题,这个问题在泰勒诉考德威尔一案中较为著名（3 B & S.826）我并不认为引入英国法的这项原则应当被限制在这样一些案例中，这些案例中引发合同履行不能的事件致使合同的标的物灭失，或一些条件和事情的处境明示地特定成为构成致使合同标的不构成或不存在的条件。我认为，必须先确定，并非一定是根据合同条款，如果接受请求，也可以从必要的相关信息来确定，根据双方当事人均认可的外部条件，确定什么是合同的标的，然后问此重大合同是否需要一个假设存在一个事物的状态作为基础。如果答案是肯定的，这种情况将限制合同法一般原则的适用。并且在此类案例中，如果合同因为这种双方当事人假定的作为合同基础的事物的状态不存在而变得无法履行，则不会限制违约。然而当前案例的事实情况如何？合同包括6月20日被告和原告的代理人塞西尔的往来信件两封。这两封信并未提及加冕典礼，但是仅仅克雷尔喜爱女生的房屋，或者有部分提及房屋在6月26日和27日两日当中白天时段的使用，共计75元，已付25元，剩余的50元于6月24日交付。但是双方当事人都认可的书面证词陈述了案例的事实，即原告的广告上有涉及为观看加冕仪式的房屋白天可供出租的内容，被告由此才被引诱，才联系了房屋管理人员租房事宜。管理员说房主将为提供观看加冕仪式的目的出租这套房屋，但是仅仅在26日和27日白天而不包括晚上的时间。法官认为，此两套房的出租目的即观看加冕仪式。法院认为此案不是房屋出租问题，而是为特定目的的房屋使用许可。法官认为，之前声明的在当天沿着之前宣布路线举行的加冕典礼的进行时合同成立的基础；并且双方在订立合同时不可能合理预见到现在的这种加冕典礼取消的情况；并且合同中规定被告承担的在指定日期交付房租的义务的条款尽管笼统和一般化，但是对于后来发生的意外事件并不适用。有人建议，在争论的过程中，如果加冕仪式和典礼在预定的时间发生是合同的基础，并且一般条款因此被加以限制性解释，以至于如果沿着确定路线的加冕仪式并未进行，他们可以解除双方当事人进一步履行合同的义务，遵循这一原则，如果一个出租车司机应运载某乘客在赛马日至爱普索姆，而且收取了相对较高的价格，如10个货币单位。如爱普索姆的赛马因为某些原因并无可能，双方当事人都可以解除合同义务；但
可撤销合同中重大误解的比较研究 合同的可撤销，是合同效力外在表现形式的一种。可撤销合同具体是指因违反当事人真实意思表示而订立的，当事人能够行使或能够不行使撤销权而使其归于无效的合同。合同的可撤销，侧重爱护和突出的是当事人的意思自治，当事人交易时意思表示不真实，能够要求法律加以干涉，当事人真实的意思得以实现。现实交易中当事人在意思表示不真实的情形下签订的合同不在少数，但产生纠纷后许多当事人却不明白行使撤销权，撤销或变更合同内容，以爱护自己差不多或立即受到损害的利益。即使有部分当事人提出撤销要求，审判实践中也往往作为处理，专门当这种撤销要求不明确时，当事人的真实意思表示更难以通过法院裁判得到爱护。因此，有必要对可撤销合同及其成因进行深入研究，清晰其真实涵义及立法本意，以便于实践操作中准确适用。 我国《合同法》第54条对可撤销合同的缘故规定为4个方面：重大误解、显失公平、欺诈和胁迫、乘人之危。对可撤销合同的缘故规定，与《民法通则》相比，《合同法》没有任何进步，更不用讲与外国立法相比仍旧滞后。《合同法》立法时，专家建议稿曾专门用一节的篇幅规定了可撤销合同，其中包括5条，对欺诈、胁迫、重大误解、显失公平、不当阻碍等都作出了较为具体的规定。但《合同法》征求意见稿却将专家建议稿的5条合并为1条2款，内容上作了简化和压缩。全民讨论稿时又对可撤销、可变更合同进行了简化，将征求意见稿的2款变成1款即现在的第54条。尽管许多专家学者建议对该条款规定具体化，但立法者却将那个咨询题留给了法官，留给了法官的判定。如何正确明白得和准确适用合同的可撤销法则，则成为摆在法官面前的一道难题。适用过宽，会被利用以躲避正常的商业风险而侵害诚实信用原则;适用过严，又不能爱护因意思表示不真实使合法权益受害的当事人，而侵害公平原则。因此，笔者拟对我国合同法中可撤销合同的缘故进行比较研究，以便于在审判实践中更准确明白得和适用。但因篇幅所限，本文仅对可撤销合同诸成因之一的重大误解进行比较分析。 一、关于误解的涵义
合同法中对违约责任的规定条款 为了帮助大家更好的了解合同违约责任，文典律师特别整理了此篇文章，以下内容主要从合同法违约责任制度内容、违约责任特征及合同法对违约责任的规定条款三方面介绍，欢迎大家阅读交流。 一、合同法违约责任制度内容 1.违约形态 一是根据违约的时间，将违约分为实际违约和预期违约。实际违约是指事实上已经发生了的不履行合同或不适当履行合同的情形。正如第107 条的规定，当事人一方不履行合同义务或者履行合同义务不符合约定的，应承担相应的违约责任。预期违约是指合同还未到履行期，但合同一方当事人用语言或者行为表示将不履行合同的情形。正如第108条的规定，合同虽然尚未到期，如果一方有不履行的表示，对方也可以要求其承担违约责任。 二是根据违约程度，将违约分为不履行和不适当履行。不履行是指当事人不履行合同义务的情形。不适当履行是指当事人履行的合同义务不符合合同约定条件的情形。 2.责任方式 (1)实际履行：第109条规定，关于金钱债务，必须实际履行;第110条规定，关于非金钱债务，特殊情况不适用实际履行。这些特殊情况包括：法律上或者事实上不能履行;债务的标的不适合强制履行或者履行费用过高;债权人在合理期限内未要求履行。 (2)赔偿损失：第112条规定，实际履行或采取补救措施后，如果对方还有损失，应赔偿。根据第113条的规定，赔偿的范围包括违约所造成的所有损失，该损失中包括合同履行后可以获得的利益，但不得超过违约方订立合同时预见到或者应当预见到因违约可能造成的损失，即应遵守“合理预见规则”。
(3)支付违约金：第114条规定，当事人可以约定违约金，也可以约定损失赔偿额的计算方法，但违约金不得过高或过低。 (4)执行定金罚则：关于定金的问题，应依据《中华人民共和国担保法》的具体规定执行;如果当事人同时约定有违约金和定金的，只能选择其一执行。 (5)其他责任方式：第111条规定，违约方在履行合同义务时因为质量不符合约定，首先按照当事人的约定承担违约责任，如果当事人没有约定责任方式的，非违约方可根据标的性质及损失的大小，合理选择要求对方承担修理、更换、重作、退货、减价等违约责任。 3.免责事由 第117条、第118条规定，只有不可抗力方可免除合同当事人的违约责任，但不履行合同的一方应当及时通知对方并在合理期限内提供证明。 4.其他 (1)防止损失扩大规则：第119条规定，非违约方不可坐视损失扩大，应当采取措施而未采取的，不得就扩大的损失主张赔偿。为防止损失扩大而支出的合理费用，由违约方承担。 (2)因第三人原因而违约：第121条规定，因第三人方面的原因而违约，不是免责理由。 (3)责任竞合：第122条规定，当发生违约责任和侵权责任竞合时，受害人可以选择适用的法律。 二、违约责任特征 (1)违约责任是民事责任的一种形式。 民事责任是指民事主体在民事活动中，因违反法律规定的义务或者合同约定的义务应承担的民事法律后果。我国《民法通则》第六章“民事责任”就包含了
北京师范大学珠海分校教学大纲 2011 —— 2012学年第 1 学期
《合同法》 教学大纲 一、课程说明 1、课程基本情况 课程名称：合同法 所属专业：金融学（英）、国际经济与贸易（英） 课程性质： 通识必修课（）通识选修课（）学科基础课（） 专业方向课（）专业选修课（√）实践教学（） 学分： 2 学分 2、课程简介 目标：在满足社会主义现代化建设和实施依法治国方略对法律人才的需要的过程中，我国的法学教育有了极大的发展，尤其是在我国加入WTO前后，许多重点高校把双语教学提到了议事日程上。新的形势要求法学教师使用双语讲授专业课程。这标志着我国的专业英语教学面临着越来越高的要求，为了适应这一形势的需要，我们特开设《合同法》英语。 任务：通过教师的“精讲”和学生的“多练”，着重培养学生的法律实践能力先修课：英语 后续课：商业法 3、教材及参考书 教材：《LAW FOR BUSINESS STUDENTS》 ALIX ADAMS主编 PEARSON 2011年版 主要参考书目：征，《英美合同法概论》，大学，1994 王军，《美国合同法》，中国政法大学，2000 SMITH AND KEENAN，English Law PITMAN publishing， 1992 E.ALLAN FARNSWORTH，CASES AND MATERIALS ON CONTRACTS WESTBURY, NEW YORK THE FOUNDATION PRESS,INC. 1995 二、课程容与安排 CHAPTER 2 CONCEPT OF CONTRACT （一）教学方法 讲授（√）、讨论（√）、案例（）、实操（）、情景（√）、实验（）、其它（√ ） 学时分配：本章共需 6 学时 （二）容及基本要求 主要容：理解合同的概念
合同法复习提纲 第1～2章 一、合同的概念和特征 合同是平等主体的自然人、法人及其他组织之间设立、变更、终止民事权利义务关系的协议。 合同的特征主要有三个： 1．合同是双方或多方的民事行为； 2．合同是意思表示一致的民事行为； 3．合同以设立、变更或终止民事权利义务关系为内容。 二、合同法的基本原则 合同法的基本原则有：平等原则、自愿原则、公平原则、诚实信用原则、保护公序良俗原则、合法原则。 三、合同的种类 合同可以分为不同的种类：口头合同与书面合同；有偿合同与无偿合同；双务合同与单务合同；有名合同与无名合同；诺成合同与实践合同；要式合同与不要式合同；格式合同与非格式合同；主合同与从合同；为本人利益的合同与为第三人利益的合同；本合同与预约合同；确定合同与射幸合同。 上述合同种类并没有囊括合同的所有种类，仅仅是最常见的几种分类。实践中注意这几个问题： 1．凡是不能当时结清、金额较大的和比较重要的合同应当采取书面合同的形式。 2．有名合同发生争议时优先适用合同法；无名合同发生争议时适用合同法总则或者其他最近似的法律，其法律保护的效果弱于有名合同。 3．格式合同出现争议时，要作出不利于提供合同方的解释。 四、合同当事人的资格和形式 合同当事人包括公民和法人。合同的当事人需要一定的资格，也就是指在订立合同时
公民应当具有相应的民事行为能力，法人应当具有相应的民事权利能力。 当事人根据具体情况选择口头合同或书面合同。法律、行政法规规定采用书面形式的，必须采用书面形式，但是有二个例外： 1．合同法第36条规定，法定或约定采用书面合同的，当事人未采用书面合同形式但一方已经履行了合同的主要义务，对方接受的，该合同成立； 2．合同法第37条的规定，采用书面合同形式，在签字盖章之前，当事人一方已经履行主要义务，对方接受的，合同成立。 五、合同的成立与合同生效的区别 合同的成立与合同的生效在法律上是两个完全不同的概念。 合同的成立，是指合同订立过程的完成，是缔约人经过平等的协商而对合同的基本内容达成了一致意见。要约和承诺的结束意味当事人合意的完成，也就是合同的成立。 合同的生效，广义上，是指合同的有效，是具有了一般的法律约束力，狭义上，是指合同约定的权利义务的发生。 合同的成立与合同生效的区别是：1．两者的法律后果不同。合同生效以后，合同就得到了国家的确认和保护，故违反合同即须承担违约责任；而如果合同仅仅是成立，并未生效，那就只存在缔约责任问题。 2．国家主动干预的程度不同。对违反合同的生效要件、内容违法的合同而言，即使当事人不主张合同无效，国家亦应主动干预；而对已成立的合同，即使其内容不完全，条款有疏漏，只要当事人自愿，也应当认为该合同业已成立，国家无须主动干涉，完全可以让享有撤消权的人自己去处理。 3．对能否适用合同解释的方法态度不同。合同的成立主要体现了当事人的意志，因此在合同规定有疏漏或不明确，而且当事人不否认其存在合同关系的时候，应当允许法院依据尊重当事人意愿和鼓励交易的原则，通过合同解释的方法，探求当事人的真实意思，以确定合同的内容。所以可以说，合同解释制度主要就是为了弥补合同成立中的缺陷而设立的一种制度，而法院绝不可能通过解释，将违法的合同变成为合法的合同。 六、使用格式合同应注意的问题 格式合同是当事人一方对长期进行、经常进行和交易次数频繁的交易所采用的一种事先拟定并印刷好的合同，这种合同体现了拟定者的意志，可能会忽略相对人的利益。所以在使用格式合同时应注意以下一些限制： 1．提供方应当遵循公平原则确定各方的权利义务；
CONTENT目录(共十六章385条) Chapter 1 MEANING OF TERMS第一章合同条款的含义 Chapter 2 FORMA TION OF CONTRATCTS------PARTIES AND CAPACITY 第二章合同的订立——当事人及其缔约能力 Chapter 3 FORMA TION OF CONTRACTS---MUTUAL ASSENT 第三章合同的订立——意思表示一致 CHAPTER 4 FORMA TION OF CONTRACTS—CONSIDERA TION 第四章合同的订立——约因 CHAPTER 5 THE STATUTE OF FRAUDS第五章防止欺诈条例 CHAPTER 6 MISTAKE第六章错误 CHAPTER 7 MISREPRESENTATION, DURESS AND UNDUE INFLUENCE 第七章虚假的意思表示，胁迫以及不当影响 CHAPTER 8 UNENFORCEABILITY ON GROUNDS OF PUBLIC POLICY 第八章合同因公共政策而不可执行 CHAPTER 9 THE SCOPE OF CONTRACTUAL OBLIGA TIONS 第九章合同义务的范围 CHAPTER 10 PERFORMANCE AND NON-PERFORMANCE 第十章合同的履行与不履行 CHAPTER 11 IMPRACTICABILITY OF PERFORMANCE AND FRUSTRATION OF PURPOSE 第十一章履行不能和履行目的落空 CHAPTER 12 DISCHARGE BY ASSET OR ALTERATION 第十二章双方合意或变更合同以解除合同义务 CHAPTER 13 JOINT AND SEVERAL PROMISORS AND PROMISEES 第十三章连带允诺人和受允诺人 CHAPTER 14 CONTRACT BENEFICIARIES第十四章合同受益人 CHAPTER 15 ASSGINEMNT AND DELEGATON 第十五章合同权利的转让与合同义务的转托 CHAPTER 16.REMEDIES第十六章违约救济
编号：_______________本资料为word版本，可以直接编辑和打印，感谢您的下载 00230合同法电子书 甲方：___________________ 乙方：___________________ 日期：___________________
篇一：00230《合同法》自考大纲(20XX) 00230《合同法》自考大纲(20XX) (个人搜集整理，仅供参考，如有出入，请予指正！) 一、合同的概述 学习目的与要求 通过本章的学习，了解合同的概念；理解合同的特征；熟悉掌握合同法律关系的要素；了解合同相对性的原理；掌握合同的分类。 课程内容 (一)合同的概念与特征 1. 合同的概念 2. 合同的特征 (1) 合同是平等主体间所实施的民事法律行为 (2) 合同以发生一定民事后果为目的 (3) 合同是当事人之间的合意 (4) 合同是对当事人具有约束力 (二)合同法律关系 1. 合同关系的主体、内容、客体 (1) 合同主体 (2) 合同内容 （3）合同客体 2. 合同的相对性 （三）合同的分类
1. 要式合同与不要式合同 2. 主合同与从合同 3. 有偿合同与无偿合同 4. 诺成性合同与实践性合同 5. 一方负担义务的合同与双方或多方负担义务的合同 6. 双务合同与单务合同 7. 束己合同与涉他合同 8. 有名合同、无名合同、混合合同 9. 附合合同与非附合合同 10. 预约与本约 11. 一时合同与继续合同 12. 实定合同与射幸合同 考核知识点与考核要求 （一）合同的概念与特征 识记：合同的概念。 领会：合同的特征。 （二）合同法律关系 识记：①合同主体；②合同客体；③合同的相对性。 领会：①主给付义务；②从给付义务；③不真正义务 简单应用：附随义务。 （三）合同的分类 识记：①一方负担义务的合同与双方或多方负担义务的合同；②
2、国际商事合同法案例讲解大全 邹岿编第二章国际商事合同法第一节合同法概述 第二节合同的成立 1、 吉卜逊诉曼彻斯特市议会案(Gibsonv . ManchesterCitPCounci11979 ) 1970年9月，保守党占多数议席的英国曼彻斯特市议会决定出让该议会房子，写信给原告吉卜逊称：“市议会有可能出让房子，价格约2725 英镑，如你想买的话，请正式写份申请。”原告按要求写好申请，并回了信。正在此时，市议会重新选举，工党占了上风，决定不出让房子了。原告遂要求法院强制执行。法院认为市议会信中的“如你想买的话，请正式写份申请”属于要约邀请，原告的申请属于要约，市议会后来没有接受要约，所以没有意思表示一致，也就没有合同。原告因 此败诉。 2、林肯被刺国防部悬赏缉凶纠纷案 林肯(AbrahamLincoln , 1809-1865)是美国第16届总统。林肯被暗杀后， 有三个犯罪嫌疑人，其中两人被逮捕，剩下一人怎么也找不到。为此，国防部悬赏25 万美元查找这个嫌疑犯。原来，这个人跑到意大利当兵去了。隐姓埋名许多年之后，有一天，该人酒后吹牛，把当年暗杀林肯的事说了出来。听到该话的意大利人大惊，就把消息通过意大利官方告知美国国防部。由于长期没有音信，美国国防部已经撤回了这个悬赏。但意大利方面并不知道。后来，通风报信的人 要求美国支付这25万美元的悬赏。美国本土撤回的悬赏，在不知情的意大利人看来并未被撤回，后来起诉到法院。最终双方达成妥协，美国国防部给了意大利报信人10 万美元了结此案。
3、纽曼诉斯奇夫案( Newmanv . Schiff)1985 一个名叫斯奇夫的人，自称反税收者，在美国哥伦比亚广播公司( CBSI凌晨3 : 00-4:00 的一档夜间电视节目中，声称联邦政府并未要求美国公民申报所得税，并说：“如果有人能从联邦税法中查到公民必须申报所得税的规定，并马上打电话给 本档夜间节目，我将付给他100000 美元。”哥伦比亚广播公司的早间新闻转播了夜间节目的这则报道。 一个名叫纽曼的律师看后，查了联邦税法，确认联邦税法要求公民必须申报所得税，随即打电话给哥伦比亚广播公司，要求得到100000美元，CBS把这 一要求转给斯奇夫，斯奇夫拒绝支付。纽曼上法院告斯奇夫违约，法院认为斯奇夫的 要约是有时间期限的，即当天夜里3: 00-4 : 00 的那档节目，在这期间若有承诺，合同遂告成立，斯奇夫就要支付100000 美元，过了这段时间，要约失效，无合同可言，原告败诉。 4、斯蒂克诉马立克案案( StiIkv.MPrick)1 809 船方雇用一批海员作一次往返于伦敦与波罗的海的航行，途中两名船员开了 小差，船长答应其他船员，如果他们努力把船开回伦敦，他将把那两名海员的工资分给他们，事后船长食言，船员到法院起诉，法院认为船长的允诺是不能执行的，因为缺少对价，理由是，船员在开船时，已经承担了义务，答应在航行中遇到一般普通意外情况应尽力而为，有两名船员开小差属普通意外情况，余下的船员依据原来签订的雇佣合同有义务尽力把船安全开回目的港，简而言之，凡属原 来合同已经存在的义务，不能作为一项新的允诺对价。 5、蒙特夫特诉斯考特案(Mountfordv . Scott ) 1971
§ 1. Contract Defined Link to Case Citations A contract is a promise or a set of promises for the breach of which the law gives a remedy, or the performance of which the law in some way recognizes as a duty. § 2. Promise; Promisor; Promisee; Beneficiary Link to Case Citations (1) A promise is a manifestation of intention to act or refrain from acting in a specified way, so made as to justify a promisee in understanding that a commitment has been made. (2) The person manifesting the intention is the promisor. (3) The person to whom the manifestation is addressed is the promisee. (4) Where performance will benefit a person other than the promisee, that person is a beneficiary.
§ 3. Agreement Defined; Bargain Defined Link to Case Citations An agreement is a manifestation of mutual assent on the part of two or more persons. A bargain is an agreement to exchange promises or to exchange a promise for a performance or to exchange performances. § 4. How A Promise May Be Made Link to Case Citations A promise may be stated in words either oral or written, or may be inferred wholly or partly from conduct. § 5. Terms Of Promise, Agreement, Or Contract Link to Case Citations (1) A term of a promise or agreement is that portion of the intention or assent manifested which relates to a particular matter.
RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS 合同法第二次重述 Chapter 1 MEANING OF TERMS 第一章 合同条款的含义 §1. CONTRACT DEFINED A contract is a promise or a set of promises for the breach of which the law gives a remedy, or the performance of which the law in some way recognizes as a duty. §1.合同指的是一个允诺或一组允诺，如果违反此允诺，则法律给与救济；如果其履行了允诺，则法律以某种方式将其视为一项义务。 §2. PROMISE; PROMISOR; PROMISEE. (1) A promise is a manifestation of intention to act or refrain from acting in a specified way,so made as to justify a promisee in understanding that a commitment has been made. (2) The person manifesting the intention is the promisor. (3) The person to whom the manifestation is addressed is the promisee.... (4) Where performance will benefits a person other than the promisee, that person is beneficiary. §2. 允诺；允诺人；受允诺人 （1）允诺就是以特定方式实施或禁止实施某种行为的意思表示，这种意思表示使受允诺人正当地认为一个允诺已经作出。 （2）作出该意思表示的人是允诺人 （3）该意思表示所指向的人为受允诺人。 （4）如果该允诺的履行使除受允诺人之外的他人获利，则该人为受益人。
2008年第6期兰州学刊No. 6 2008总第177期L a n zhou xue kan Gene r a l. No. 177 ·法学研究· 中美法律中关于赠与合同若干问题的比较研究 李彦芳 (山西财经大学法学院,山西太原030006 ) [摘要] 属于普通法系的美国合同法与属于大陆法系的我国合同法在具体规则方面各有其特色。体现在赠与合同方面,二者在任意撤销权、公益性赠与合同、赠与财产的瑕疵责任三个问题上,既有相同也有不同,研究它们对我国合同法中赠与合同规定的完善、以及了解美国的相应法律制度具有重要意义。 [关键词] 单务合同;任意撤销权;公益性;瑕疵责任 [中图分类号]D923. 6〔文献标识码〕A 〔文章编号〕1005 - 3492 ( 2008 )06 - 0107 - 03 作者简介:李彦芳,女,山西财经大学法学院讲师,中国人民大学法学院民商法专业博士生。 美国合同法是普通法,其基本原理和规则与属于大陆法系的我国合同法有很大不同,但也不乏异曲同工之处。美国合同法的主体来自于其建国二百余年间的司法判例,并且在一定程度上继承了其建国前英国法的判例传统;我国合同法的主体是1999年3月15日九届人大二次会议通过的《中华人民共和国合同法》。对于在现实生活中时有发生的赠与合同,两国合同法的有关规定就显得各有千秋,都有可借鉴之处。从以下几个方面可略见端倪。 一、普通赠与合同的任意撤销权 由于赠与合同是单务合同,受赠人是纯获利益者,所以学术界一般都认为应准许赠与人在一定条件下反悔,对赠与人的约束应较双务合同弱一些。基于此种考虑,各国合同法一般有两种作法:一种是采纳实践合同观点立法的国家,认为赠与合同是实践合同,其有效成立不仅要有当事人意思表示的一致,而且须有赠与人实际交付赠与物给受赠人的行为。此设定允许赠与人在交付前反悔,对赠与人较为有利。我国最高人民法院的《关于贯彻执行(民法通则)若干问题的意见》(试行)第128条的规定:“赠与关系的成立,以赠与物的交付为准。”该款司法解释在过去法律未对赠与合同明文规定的情况下,对指导司法实践起了很大的作用;另一种是采纳诺成合同观点立法的国家,认为赠与合同是诺成合同,即赠与合同经双方意思表示一致即为成立, 对赠与人有约束力。这种立法模式对保护受赠人有利。如《法国民法典》第938条规定:“正式接受的赠与,经当事人双方的同意即告完成,赠与物的所有权即转归受赠人,无须其他的交付手续。”[ 1 ]但为了保护赠与人的利益,采用这种模式的国家又同时规定了赠与人撤回赠与的权利。 美国是联邦国家,赠与为州法,各州情形并不完全一致。长期以来,美国各法院一再说明,赠与的要件除了当事人、标的、意思表示均符合规定无瑕疵外,还须有赠与财产之充分交付( suffi2 c ien t delive ry of the p rop erty) ,而且大多数州法典也另外规定不动产和无体财产权( inco r po rea l p r ope rty)之赠与,必须以书面为之,经见证并公证,才生效力。由此可知,美国法上的赠与,原则上动产须经交付,不动产须以书面为之,才生效力。[ 2 ] 此称为赠与之要式性或要物性。在不符合要式性或要物性之前,赠与合同是不发生效力的,当然受赠人也就无法要求赠与人履行其赠与的义务,与此同时,赠与人理应享有撤销权。可见,虽然美国属于不同传统的英美法系,但美国对赠与合同实际上是采取实践合同的态度。 我国《合同法》第185条规定:“赠与合同是赠与人将自己的财产无偿赠与给受赠人,受赠人表示接受赠与的合同。”该条虽然没有像德国、日本、台湾等立法那样突出赠与人和受赠人的“意思表示一致”或“合意”,但也没有突出“交付赠与物”作为合同成立要件。这样立法上的模糊性与不确定性,曾使得学术界对于一般赠与合同的性质是诺成性还是实践性存在较大的分歧。有的学者认为应将一般赠与合同的性质理解为实践性合同,若只有赠与人和受赠人就转移财产权利的意思表示一致,而实际未交付赠与物时,则赠与合同根本就不成立。因此,赠与人当然可以依自己的意愿任意撤销自己的赠与意思表示,这既不构成违约,也不会对受赠人造成相关利益的损害。[ 3 ]但目前的主流观点是认为《合同法》中规定的一般赠与合同是诺成性合同, 从《合同法》对赠与合同所做的定义来看,将其定位于诺成合同也较为合理。 由于赠与合同是诺成合同,在赠与的财产权利转移之前合同已经成立并生效,赠与人本该履行合同,但考虑到赠与合同是单务合同,赠与人只承担义务,受赠人只享有权利,系纯获利益者,有失公平,法律又赋予赠与人以任意撤销权,对双方的利益进行平衡。《合同法》186条第1款规定:“赠与人在赠与财产的权利转移之前可以撤销赠与。”任意撤销权的规定适当减轻了赠与人的合同义务,相对平衡了双方的利益,是公平原则的体现。 但是,任何权利都应有所限制,我国合同法规定的赠与人任意撤销权的范围未免失之过宽。从法律条文的表面上看,对赠与人任意撤销权的行使几乎毫无限制,赠与人在行使此撤销权时,如果没有特别约定,即使给受赠人造成经济损失,一般也不
《合同法学》教学大纲 课程名称：《合同法学》 学分：3 总课时：54 开课时间：大学三年级上学期 教材：王利明崔建远《合同法新论—总则》中国政法大学出版社 郭明瑞王轶《合同法新论—分则》中国政法大学出版社 或王利明房绍坤王轶《合同法》中国人民大学出版社 必读材料：《中华人民共和国合同法》 最高人民法院有关合同法的司法解释（目前主要是《解释》（一）） 教学内容与学时分配： 第一章合同法概述-----------------------------3学时 第二章合同的订立-----------------------------6学时 第三章合同的效力-----------------------------6学时 第四章合同的内容---------------------------- 2学时 第五章合同的解释-----------------------------2学时 第六章合同的履行-----------------------------4学时 第七章违约责任-------------------------------6学时 第八章合同的变更与转让-----------------------2学时 第九章合同权利与合同义务的终止---------------3学时 第十章合同的法律适用-------------------------2学时 第十一章合同法分则----------------------------18学时 教学基本要求： 本课程以讲授我国合同法为主，适当介绍普通法系合同法、大陆法系合同法和国际统一的合同法规则，并对中外合同法作适当比较分析。通过本课程学习，学生应全面掌握我国合同法规则，初步了解我国合同法与国外合同法的主要差别，能运用我国合同法规则正确地分析、解决具体的实际问题，并具备初步的合同法理论研究能力。
00230《合同法》自考大纲（2015） （个人搜集整理，仅供参考，如有出入，请予指正！） 一、合同的概述 学习目的与要求 通过本章的学习，了解合同的概念；理解合同的特征；熟悉掌握合同法律关系的要素；了解合同相对性的原理；掌握合同的分类。 课程内容 （一）合同的概念与特征 1.合同的概念 2.合同的特征 （1）合同是平等主体间所实施的民事法律行为 （2）合同以发生一定民事后果为目的 （3）合同是当事人之间的合意 （4）合同是对当事人具有约束力 （二）合同法律关系 1.合同关系的主体、内容、客体 （1）合同主体 （2）合同内容 （3）合同客体 2.合同的相对性 （三）合同的分类 1.要式合同与不要式合同 2.主合同与从合同 3.有偿合同与无偿合同 4.诺成性合同与实践性合同 5.一方负担义务的合同与双方或多方负担义务的合同 6.双务合同与单务合同 7.束己合同与涉他合同 8.有名合同、无名合同、混合合同 9.附合合同与非附合合同 10.预约与本约 11.一时合同与继续合同 12.实定合同与射幸合同 考核知识点与考核要求 （一）合同的概念与特征 识记：合同的概念。 领会：合同的特征。 （二）合同法律关系 识记：①合同主体；②合同客体；③合同的相对性。 领会：①主给付义务；②从给付义务；③不真正义务。 简单应用：附随义务。 （三）合同的分类 识记：①一方负担义务的合同与双方或多方负担义务的合同；②束己合同与涉他合同；③有名合同、无名合同、混合合同；④附合合同与非附合合同；⑤预约与本约；⑥实定合同与射幸合同。 领会：①主合同与从合同；②一时合同与继续合同。
简单应用：要式合同与不要式合同。 综合应用：①有偿合同与无偿合同；②诺成性合同与实践性合同；③双务合同与单务合同。 本章关键问题 揭示合同与单方民事法律行为的区别，合同与行政合同的区别，合同与物权变动行为的区别。分析合同权利的权能，合同义务的类型，不同类型义务之间的联系和区别是什么。合同相对性的原理的基本内涵，如何理解“相对性突破”之说。每一种合同分类的意义何在。有偿合同与双务合同划分标准之区别及其存在价值。 二、合同法概述 学习目的与要求 通过本章的学习，了解合同法的概念，理解合同法的特征，掌握合同法的基本原则。 课程内容 （一）合同法的概念与特征 1.合同法的概念 2.合同法的特征 （1）合同法是规范合同当事人行为的法律 （2）合同法是调整平等主体之间动态财产关系的法律 （3）合同法的规定基本属于任意性规范 （4）合同法既调整民事合同关系又调整商事合同关系 （二）合同法的基本原则 1.合同主体平等原则 2.合同自由原则 3.合同公平原则 4.诚实信用原则 5.鼓励交易原则 考核知识点与考核要求 （一）合同法的概念与特征 识记：合同法的概念。 领会：合同法的特征。 （二）合同法的基本原则 识记：合同主体平等原则。 领会：①合同公平原则；②鼓励交易原则。 简单应用：合同自由原则 综合应用：诚实信用原则 本章关键问题 合同法如何科学界定。合同主体平等原则与合同自由原则的联系与区别。合同公平原则的内涵，合同公平原则与诚实信用原则的关系。“私法自治”在合同法中的体现。 三、合同的成立 学习目的与要求 通过本章的学习，了解合同订立的概念；掌握合同成立的条件，掌握合同订立程序、合同成立的时间和地点；了解特殊订约方式，掌握对格式条款的规制措施；熟练掌握缔约过失责任制度。 课程内容 （一）合同成立的概念与条件 1.合同成立的概念 2.合同成立的条件 （1）一般成立条件 （2）特殊成立条件