Third stage( 1970-now): Metaphors and Metonymies are regarded as cognitive models and been studied within multidisciplinary fields.
相似原则（principle of similarity）
人们容易将相同或相似的东西看做是一个单位。这 一原则在概念和语言的形成中是最重要的原则。
顺接原则（principle of good continuation）
在识别和记忆事物时，人们倾向于寻找有规律、变化 小的整体。
接近原则（principle of proximity）
在认知上，距离相近的事物容易被看做是一个单 位。
Three stages of Metaphors studies
Initial stage(300BC-1920s): During this stage, Metaphors and Metonymies are studied as kinds of rhetoric devices. Aristotle, who first began to study the properties and functions of Metaphor, defined metaphor as the Transference of meaning between concepts in her book Rehetoric and Poetry. Representatives of this stages are Aristotle, Quintilian…
隐喻的抽象认知能力来源于对两个概念的“相似（
similarity）”的认知。
映射域即人脑中两个概念建立相似性的地方。
Three major components of mapping scopes：
Image schemas: firmly grounded in our bodily experiences, are the most probably shared by all human beings. ‘in-out’
03
Metaphors as a way of thinking: examples from science and politics
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Pragmatic applications of Metaphors and
Metonymies
All the world’s a stage And all the man and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrance, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages... 问君能有几多愁?恰似一江春水向东流 . 下馆子/上饭店 Do metaphors or metonymies only exist in literature? What kind of roles that metaphors and metonymies do in our daily life?
突显原则（principle of prominence）
人们的注意力更容易观察和记忆事物比较突显的方面。
相似原则&顺接原则是隐喻的认知原则。 接一种圆满的实现，能表达人的感知本 身所不能表现的事情。——查理
语言学上，把由于两个事物的特征上所存在的某 一类似之处，而用指一个事物的词来指代另一个 事物的演变方式叫做隐喻（Metaphor）。
Second stage(1930-1960): Focus on the structure and meaning of metaphor. This is a period of time that regard as the transitory stage between the study of metaphor as rhetoric devices and the study of metaphor as a cognitive model. Main representatives of this stage are R. Jakobson, E. Benveniste and M. Black.
映射（Mapping）
Metaphor involves using words from one domain to talk about the other. The domain from which words been selected is called the source domain, and the domain been described is regarded as the target domain.
Chapter3 Conceptual metaphor and metonymies
Presented by 肖丽红
Outline
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Metaphors and Metonymies: from figures of speech to cognitive models
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Metaphors and Metonymies: as cognitive instruments
Basic correlations: guide us in understanding the events and actions in the world around us. ‘cause<>effect’, action/change<>motion…
Culture-dependent evaluations: restricted to the members of a specific culture.