西方管理理论复习知识要点梳理1.Manager：Someone who works with and through other people by coordinating and integrating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals.2.Classifying Managers：①First-line Managers—Are at the lowest level of management and manage the work of non-managerial employees.②Middle Managers—Manage thework of first-line managers.③Top Managers ：re responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing plans and goals that affect the entire organization.3.Managerial Concerns：①Efficiency-“Doing things right”Getting the most output for the least inputs；②Effectiveness-“Doing the right things”Attaining organizational goals.4.Management Four Functions：page 9；Management Roles：page 10；Management Skills：page 12.anization：A deliberate arrangement of people to accomplish some specific purposeCommon Characteristics of Organizations：①Have a distinct purpose；②Composed of people；③Have a deliberate structure.6.Why Study Management：①The universality of management；②The reality of work；③Rewards and challenges of being a manager. Rewards and Challenges of Being AManager：page19.7.Fredrick Winslow Taylor：The “father”of scientific management；Published Principles of Scientific Management (1911)；The theory of scientific management Using scientificmethods to define the “one best way”for a job to be done:①Putting the right person on the job with the correct tools and equipment.②Having a standardized method of doing the job.③Providing an economic incentive to the worker.8.Taylor’s Five Principles of Management：①Develop a science for each element of anindividual’s work, which will replace the old rule-of-thumb method.②Scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the worker.③Heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure that all work is done in accordance with the principles of the science that has been developed.④Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers.⑤Management takes over all work for which it is better fitted than the workers.9.Frank and Lillian Gilbreth：①Focused on increasing worker productivity through the reduction of wasted motion；②Developed the microchronometer to time worker motionsand optimize performance.10.How Do Today’s Managers Use Scientific Management:①Use time and motion studies to increase productivity;②Hire the best qualified employees;③Design incentive systemsbased on output. Early Advocates of OB：page 3311.Max Weber：Developed a theory of authority based on an ideal type of organization (bureaucracy)，Emphasized rationality, predictability, impersonality, technical competence, and authoritarianism.Fayol’s 14 Principles of Management：page 3012.The Hawthorne Studies：A series of productivity experiments conducted at Western Electric from 1927 to 1932；①Experimental findings-Productivity unexpectedly increased under imposed adverse working conditions；The effect of incentive plans was less thanexpected.②Research conclusion-Social norms, group standards and attitudes more strongly influence individual output and work behavior than do monetary incentives.13.The Systems Approach：page 35；The Contingency Approach：page36；A Process for Addressing Ethical Dilemmas：page 38；14.Quality Management：A philosophy of management driven by continual improvement in the quality of work processes and responding to customer needs and expectations；Inspired by the total quality management (TQM) ideas of Deming and Juran；Quality is not directly related to cost.15.What is Management Quality：①Intense focus on the customer；②Concern for continual improvement；③Process-focused；④Improvement in the quality of everything；⑤Accurate measurement；⑥Empowerment of employees.16.Omnipotent View of Management：①Managers are directly responsible for anorganization’s success or failure.②The quality of the organization is determined by the quality of its managers.③Managers are held most accountable for an organization’s performance yet it is difficult to attribute good or poor performance directly to their influence on the organization.17.Symbolic View of Management：①Much of an organization’s succes s or failure is due toexternal forces outside of managers’ control.②The ability of managers to affect outcomes is influenced and constrained by external factors.③Managers symbolize control and influence through their action.anizational Culture：A system of shared meanings and common beliefs held by organizational members that determines, in a large degree, how they act towards each other. Dimensions of Organizational Culture：page 5219.Managerial Decisions Affected by Character：⑴Planning：①The degree of risk that plans should contain.② Whether plans should be developed by individuals or teams.③The degree of environmental scanning in which management will engage.⑵Organizing:①Howmuch autonomy should be designed into employees’ jobs.②Whether tasks should be done by individuals or in teams.③The degree to which department managers interact with each other.⑶Leading:①The degree to which managers are concerned with increasing employee job satisfaction.②What leadership styles are appropriate.③Whether all disagreements—even constructive ones—should be eliminated.⑷Controlling:①Whether to impose external controls or to allow employees to control their own actions.②What criteria should be emphasized in employee performance evaluations.③ What repercussions will occur from exceeding one’s budget. How Employees Learn Culture:page 56.20.The External Environment：page 64；Selected U.S. Legislation Affecting Business：page 67；How the Environment Affects Managers：page 69；Environmental Uncertainty Matrix：page 69. Approaches to Being Green：page106.21.Decision：Making a choice from two or more alternatives.The Decision-Making Process：①Identifying a problem and decision criteria and allocating weights to the criteria.②Developing, analyzing, and selecting an alternative that can resolve the problem.③Implementing the selected alternative.④Evaluating the decision’seffectiveness.Evaluation of Franchise Alternatives Against Weighted Criteria：page137(计算); Expected Value for Revenues from the Addition of One Ski Lift：page146(计算); Types of Problems, Types of Decisions, and Level in the Organization：page144(图表); Decision-Making Styles：page147.22.Types of Programmed Decisions：①A Policy-A general guideline for making a decisionabout a structured problem.②A Procedure-A series of interrelated steps that a manager can use to respond (applying a policy) to a structured problem.③A Rule-An explicit statement that limits what a manager or employee can or cannot do in carrying out thesteps involved in a procedure.23.Unstructured Problems：①Problems that are new or unusual and for which information is ambiguous or incomplete.②Problems that will require custom-made solutions. Nonprogrammed Decisions：①Decisions that are unique and nonrecurring.②Decisionsthat generate unique responses.24.Characteristics of an Effective Decision-Making Process：①It focuses on what isimportant.②It is logical and consistent.③It acknowledges both subjective and objective thinking and blends analytical with intuitive thinking.④It requires only as much information and analysis as is necessary to resolve a particular dilemma.⑤It encourages and guides the gathering of relevant information and informed opinion.⑥It is straightforward, reliable, easy to use, and flexible.25.Planning：A primary functional managerial activity that involves:①Defining the o rganization’s goals；②Establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals；③Developing a comprehensive set of plans to integrate and coordinate organizational work.26.Purposes of Planning：①Provides direction；②Reduces uncertainty；③Minimizes waste and redundancy；④Sets the standards for controlling.27.How Do Managers Plan:Goals-Desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire organizations,Provide direction and evaluation performance criteria;Plans-Documents that outline how goals are to be accomplished,Describe how resources are to be allocated and establish activity schedules.28.Types of Goals:①Financial Goals-Are related to the expected internal financial performance of the organization.②Strategic Goals-Are related to the performance of the firm relative to factors in its external environment.③Stated Goals versus Real Goals-Broadly-worded official statements of the organization (intended for public consumption) that may be irrelevant to its real goals (what actually goes on in the organization).29.Stated Objectives from Large U.S. Companies:page 161;Types of Plans:page 162-163.Establishing Goals and Developing Plans：page164；Steps in a Typical MBO Program：165；30.Management By Objectives (MBO)：①Specific performance goals are jointlydetermined by employees and managers.②Progress toward accomplishing goals is periodically reviewed.③Rewards are allocated on the basis of progress towards thegoals.Key elements of MBO:Goal specificity, participative decision making, an explicit performance/evaluation period, feedback31.Reason for MBO Success：Top management commitment and involvement，Potential Problems with MBO Programs：①Not as effective in dynamic environments that requireconstant resetting of goals.②Overemphasis on individual accomplishment may create problems with teamwork.③Allowing the MBO program to become an annual paperwork shuffle.32.Strategic Management：The set of managerial decisions and actions that determinesthe long-run performance of an organization.33.Why Strategic Management Is Important：①It results in higher organizational performance.②It requires that managers examine and adapt to business environment changes.③It coordinates diverse organizational units, helping them focus on organizational goals.④It is very much involved in the managerial decision-making process.The Strategic Management Process：page 182.Corporate Portfolio Analysis：page 189-190（BCG Matrix）Classifies firms as:①Cash cows: low growth rate, high market share；②Stars: high growth rate, high market share；③Question marks: high growth rate, low market share；④Dogs: low growth rate, low market share.34.Corporate-Level Strategies：Top management’s overall plan for the entire organization and its strategic business units.Types of Corporate Strategies：①Growth Strategy: Seekingto increase the organization’s b usiness by expansion into new products and markets.②Stability Strategy: A strategy that seeks to maintain the status quo to deal with the uncertainty of a dynamic environment, when the industry is experiencing slow- or no-growth conditions, or if the owners of the firm select not to grow for personal reasons.③Renewal Strategies: Developing strategies to counter organization weaknesses that are leading to performance declines.Forces in the Industry Analysis:page 193-193（Five Competitive Forces）First-Mover Advantages–Disadvantages：（page 199）. 35.Global Scanning：①Screening a broad scope of information on global forces that mightaffect the organization.②Has value to firms with significant global interests.③Draws information from sources that provide global perspectives on world-wide issues andopportunities.36.Forecasting：The part of organizational planning that involves creating predictions ofoutcomes based on information gathered by environmental scanning.Types of Forecasting：①Quantitative forecasting-Applying a set of mathematical rules to a series ofhard data to predict outcomes.②Qualitative forecasting-Using expert judgments and opinions to predict less than precise outcomes.Forecasting Techniques:page 209.37.Benchmarking:The search for the best practices among competitors and noncompetitors that lead to their superior performance.The Benchmarking Process:page211.(Steps in Benchmarking);Types of Budgets:page 212-21338.Schedules:Plans that allocate resources by detailing what activities have to be done, the order in which they are to be completed, who is to do each, and when they are to be completed.A Gantt Chart:page 213-214(A Load Chart)39.PERT Network:A flow chart diagram that depicts the sequence of activities needed to complete a project and the time or costs associated with each activity.page 215;A PERT Network for Constructing an Office Building:page 216-217(A PERT Network forConstructing an Office Building；Breakeven Analysis）；Production Data for Cinnamon-Scented Products：page218（计算）40.Project Management：The task of getting a project’s activities done on time, within budget, and according to specifications.Project Planning Process：page 219；Some Purposes of Organizing：page 234；41.Work Specialization：The degree to which tasks in the organization are divided into separate jobs with each step completed by a different person.42.Span of Control：The number of employees who can be effectively and efficiently supervised by a manager.Factors that Influence the Amount of Centralization：page 240；Formalization：The degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized and the extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules and anizational Design Decisions：page 241；Woodward’s Findings on Technology, Structure, and Effectiveness：page 243；Strengths and Weaknesses of Common Traditional Organizational Designs：page 244；Characteristics of a Learning Organization：page 249 munication：The transfer and understanding of meaning.Interpersonal Communication：Communication between two or more people；Organizational Communication：All the patterns, network, and systems of communicationswithin an organization.page 256-25744.Interpersonal Communication Methods:page 260; Interpersonal Communication Barriers:page 262(Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication);Active Listening Behaviors:page 265(Overcoming the Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communications)45.Formal Communication：Communication that follows the official chain of command or is part of the communication required to do one’s rmal Communication：Communication that is not defined by the organization’s hierarchy.Types of Communication Networks：page 268；46.The Importance of Human Resource Management (HRM)：①Necessary part of the organizing function of management，②As an important strategic tool：HRM helps establish an organization’s sustainable competitive advantage.③Adds value to the firm：High performance work practices lead to both high individual and high organizational performance.High-Performance Work Practices：page 28347.Functions of the HRM Process：①Ensuring that competent employees are identifiedand selected.②Providing employees with up-to-date knowledge and skills to do their jobs.③Ensuring that the organization retains competent and high-performing employees who are capable of high performance.Major U.S. Federal Laws and Regulations Relatedto HRM：page 28448.Human Resource (HR) Planning：The process by which managers ensure that they have the right number and kinds of people in the right places, and at the right times, who are capable of effectively and efficiently performing their tasks.Steps in HR planning：①Assessing current human resources.②Assessing future needs for human resources.③Developing a program to meet those future needs.49.Job Analysis:An assessment that defines a job and the behaviors necessary to perform the job.Job Description:A written statement of what the job holder does, how it is done, and why it is done.Job Specification:A written statement of the minimum qualifications that a person must possess to perform a given job successfully.Major Sources of Potential Job Candidates:page 287;Decruitment Options:288(Selection Decision Outcomes);Suggestions for Interviewing:page 291;Quality of Selection Devices as Predictors:293; Types of Training:page 294-295(Employee Training Methods);Performance Appraisal Methods:296;Factors That Influence Compensation and Benefits:page 298;T op 10 Job Factors for College Graduates:page300;Contemporary HRM Issues:page 301.50.Performance Management System:A process establishing performance standards and appraising employee performance in order to arrive at objective HR decisions and to provide documentation in support of those decisions.anizational Change:Any alterations in the people, structure, or technology of an organization.Characteristics of Change:①Is constant yet varies in degree anddirection;②Produces uncertainty yet is not completely unpredictable;③Creates both threats and opportunities.Managing change is an integral part of every manager’s job. 52.Change Agents:People who act as catalysts and assume the responsibility for changing process are called change agents.Types of Change Agents:①Managers: internal entrepreneurs;②Nonmanagers: change specialists;③Outside consultants: change implementation experts.White-Water Rapids Metaphor:The lack of environmental stability and predictability requires that managers and organizations continually adapt (manage change actively) to survive.Three Categories of Change:page 317Organizational Development Techniques:page 31953.Why People Resist Change:①The ambiguity and uncertainty that change introduces②The comfort of old habits;③A concern over personal loss of status, money, authority, friendships, and personal convenience;④The perception that change is incompatible with the goals and interest of the organization.The Road to Cultural Change:page 323.54.Stress:The physical and psychological tension an individual feels when confronted with extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities and their associated importance and uncertainties.Symptoms of Stress:page 32455.Reducing Stress:①Engage in proper employee selection；②Match employees’ KSA’s to jobs’ TDR’s；③Use realistic job interviews for reduce ambiguity；④Improve organizational communications；⑤Develop a performance planning program；⑥Use job redesign；⑦Provide a counseling program；⑧Offer time planning management assistance；⑨Sponsor wellness programs.56.Making Change Happen Successfully:①Embrace change—become a change-capable organization.②Create a simple, compelling message explaining why change is necessary.③Communicate constantly and honestly.④Foster as much employee participation as possible—get all employees committed.⑤Encourage employees to be flexible.⑦Removethose who resist and cannot be changed.Innovation Variables:page 32957.Creativity:The ability to combine ideas in a unique way or to make an unusual association.Innovation:Turning the outcomes of the creative process into useful products, services, or work methods.Characteristics of Change-Capable Organizations:page 326. 58.Employee Productivity:A performance measure of both efficiency and effectiveness; Absenteeism:The failure to report to work when expected;Turnover:The voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization;page 342-343.anizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB):Discretionary behavior that is not a part of an employee’s formal job requirements, but which promotes the effective functioning of the organization.Job Satisfaction:The individual’s general attitude toward his or her job. 60.Attitudes：Evaluative statements—either favorable or unfavorable—concerning objects,people, or events.page 344-345.Job Satisfaction:Job satisfaction is affected by level of income earned and by the type of job a worker does.①For individuals, productivity appears to lead to job satisfaction.②For organizations, those with more satisfied employees are more effective than those with less satisfied employees.61.Actions to increase job satisfaction for customer service workers:①Hire upbeat and friendly employees.②Reward superior customer service.③Provide a positive work climate.④Use attitude surveys to track employee satisfaction.Job Involvement:Thedegree to which an employee identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her performance to be important to his or her self-worth.anizational Commitment:Is the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.Perceived Organizational Support:Is the general belief of employees that their organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being.63.Attitude Surveys:A instrument/document that presents employees with a set of statements or questions eliciting how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or their organization.64.Implication for Managers:①Attitudes warn of potential behavioral problems: Managers should do things that generate the positive attitudes that reduce absenteeism and turnover.②Attitudes influence behaviors of employees:Managers should focus on helping employees become more productive to increase job satisfaction.③Employees will try to reduce dissonance unless:Managers identify the external sources of dissonance.Managers provide rewards compensating for the dissonance.Personality:The unique combination of psychological characteristics (measurable traits) that affect how a person reacts and interacts with others.page 349-35165.Emotional Intelligence:An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to succeed in coping with environmentaldemands and pressures.The Big Five Model:page 352;Holland’s Typology of Personalityand Sample Occupations:page 356;66.Perception:A process by which individuals give meaning (reality) to their environment by organizing and interpreting their sensory impressions.Factors influencing perception: ①The perceiver’s personal characteristics—interests, biases and expectations;②The target’s characteristics—distinctiveness, contrast, and similarity);③The situation (context) factors—place, time, location—draw attention or distract from the target.67.Attribution Theory:How the actions of individuals are perceived by others depends on what meaning (causation) we attribute to a given behavior.page 358-359;Learning:Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.page 360-361.68.Motivation:The result of the interaction of a person’s internal needs and externalinfluences---involving perceptions of quality, expectancy, previous conditioning, and goal setting--- and determining behavior.Content theories:It is a group of motivation theories emphasizing the needs that motivate people.Process theories:It is a group of theories that explain how employees choose behaviors to meet their needs and how they determine whether their choices are successful. Managers Versus Leaders:page 42269.Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory:①Hygiene factors:They refer to maintenance factors, such as salary, status, working conditions, which do not relate directly to a person’s actualwork activity, but when of low quality are the cause of unhappiness on the job.②Motivation factorsThey refer to the conditions, intrinsic to thejob, that can lead to an individual’s jobsatisfaction.page 393-394 ★70.Theory X:It is a philosophy of management with a negative perception of subordinates’potential for and attitude toward work.Theory Y:It is a theory of management with a positive perception of sublimates’potential for an attitude toward work. Page 394 ★71.Managerial Grid:Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions:Concern for people Concern for production.The Managerial Grid:page 425-426.72.The Fiedler Model:Proposes that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leader’s style of interacting with followers and the degree to which the situation allows the leader to control and influence.73.Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT):Argues that successfulleadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style which is contingent on the level of the followers’readiness. Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on whether followers accept or reject a leader.Readiness: the extent to which followers have08营销(2)班内部资料仅供期末复习参考 - 11 - the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task.Hersey and Blanchard ’s Situational Leadership Model:page 428-429.Leadership Styles: Vroom Leader Participation Model:page 430. 74.Path-Goal Model:States that the leader ’s job is to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction or support to ensure their goals are compatible with organizational goals.Path-Goal Theory:page 432 75.Transactional Leadership:Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.page 433.Charismatic Leadership:An enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain ways.Visionary Leadership:A leader who creates and articulates a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves upon the present situation.Heroic Leadership(Basics of Leadership):page 445. 76.Control:The process of monitoring activities to ensure that they are being accomplished as planned and of correcting any significant deviations.Market Control:Emphasizes the use of external market mechanisms to establish the standards used in the control system.page 458-459.77.Why Is Control Important:As the final link in management functions:Planning 、Empowering employees 、Protecting the workplace.page 459-460(The Planning –Controlling Link) Popular Financial Ratios:47078.The Control Process:①Measuring actual performance.②Comparing actual performance against a standard.③Taking action to correct deviations or inadequate standards.page mon Sources of Information for Measuring Performance:page 461.Managerial Decisions in the Control Process:page 465.79.Feedforward Control:A control that prevents anticipated problems before actual occurrences of the problem.Concurrent Control:A control that takes place while the monitored activity is in progress.page 468-469(Types of Control)80.Steps to Successfully Implement an Internal Benchmarking Best Practices Program:page 474;Control Measures for Employee Theft or Fraud:page 478。