语言学期末(这份是正确的)一. What is language?1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----ShakespeareVocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.The design/defining /distinctive features of human language:Arbitrariness (任意性）Productivity/Creativity(创造性）Duality （二元性、二层性）Displacement （移位性）Cultural transmission（文化传递性）2.语言&言语Langue--- the language system shared by a community of speakersParole--- the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.3. Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‘state’of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place.Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development –for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms.二．语音学（选择题）三．音位学Phonology1.音位变体Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.同一音位在不同环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同的音段. 例如，在英语里，音位/t/在tin里是送气的[th], 在stand里是不送气的[t]，在eighth里是齿化的[t],在cotton里是鼻除阻的[tn]，在bottle里是边除阻的[tl],在hit里则表现为声门化的[t]. 此外，随着说话人口音的不同，可能还会有其他的语音形式. 这样一套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位/t/的音位变体. 把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必须满足语音相似性原则，而且它们不能处于对比分布.[p, ph] are two different phones 音子and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution 互补分布because they never occur in the same context:[p] occurs after [s] while [ph] occurs in other places./p/ [p] / [s] _____[ph] elsewhere2.互补分布Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]. 四．形态学**Morphemes: Technically, a morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammaticalsystem of a language.The components of a word are known as morphemes. They themselves cannot be further analyzed:chairman: chair, mantownhall: town, hallboys: boy, -schecking: check, -ingdisappointment: dis-, appoint, -mentFree morpheme & bound morpheme自由语素和粘着语素Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc. Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at leastone other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “ed”in “recorded”, etc.**Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme派生语素和屈折性语素Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. correct---incorrect, edit---co-edit, modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables matches factoriesb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) case: John/John’sd) comparison: tall/taller/tallest1.构词法word formation●Compound：smartphone, cutting-edge, domain name, cloakroom 衣帽间, state-of-the-art顶尖的, nursing home, self-control, armchair●Derivation派生法：un + conscious →unconscious,nation + al →national,national + ize →nationalizenationalize + ation →nationalization●Invention(新创词语): Facebook, Twitter, drones, microblog, e-tailer, smartphone, tsunami●Blending(混成法):smoke + fog> smogmotorist + hotel> motelbreakfast + lunch> brunchmodulator + demodulator>modemsmoking + flirting> smirting边吸烟边跟异性搭讪advertisement + editorial>advertorialeducation + entertainment>edutainmentinformation + commercial>infomercialinformation +entertainment>Infortainment 新闻娱乐化in + love + individual>inlovidual 独立爱人●Abbreviation(缩写词): advertisement--ad; helicopter--copter; influenza--flu●Acronym (缩写词):WB--- World Bank CIA--- Central IntelligenceAgency WTO--CPI ---Consumer PriceIndex 消费者物价指数UNESCO---联合国教科文组织NEET---Not in Education,Employment or Training啃老族●Clipping(截断法):Back-clippings:ad(vertisement),chimp(anzee),deli(catessen),hippo(potamus),piano(forte),reg(ulation)s,app(lication) program (应用软件)Fore-clippings: (ham)burger,(omni)bus, (violin)cello,(heli)copter, (alli)gator,(tele)phone, (earth)quake.Fore-and-aft clippings:(in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive).Back-formation (逆构词法)：gangling →gangleeditor →editpeddler →peddlehawker →hawkenthusiasm →enthuselaser →lasecalmative →calmfree association →free-associate●Analogical creation (类推构词)：work: wrought > worked；beseech:besought > beseeched；slay: slew > slayed?●Borrowing (借词): Borrow from other languages.Chinese: kung fu, tea, tofu, typhoon ; Japanese: TsunamiIndian: bungalow, jungle, yoga 五．句法学1.画树形图2. Chomsky提出：形式主义的转换生成语法Transformational Generative Grammar、Universal Grammar、 LAD语言习得机制 language acquisition3. 表层结构和深层结构Deep structure & surface structureConsider the following pair of sentences:John is easy to please.John is eager to please.Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures.Consider one more sentence: Flying planes can be dangerous.It can mean either that: if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous.Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units andrelationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.六．语义学Semantics1.Semantics is traditionally defined as the study of meaning in language.Types of meaning:●Grammatical meaning●Lexical meaning①Conceptual meaning 概念意义②Association meaning 联想意义a.Connotative meaning 内涵意义b.Social meaning 社会意义c.Affective meaning 情感意义d.Reflected meaning 反射意义e.Collocatinve meaning搭配意义③Thematic meaning 主位意义(1) Conceptual meaning 概念意义Also called ‘denotative’(外延的) or‘cognitive’meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes,or refers to.(2) Connotative meaning(内涵意义)The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.(3)Social meaningWhat a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.(4)Affective meaning(情感意义)Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker,including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.(5) Reflected meaningArises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.反映意义指的是一个语词或语句除了自身的意义以外还顺带隐射或隐含了其他意义，或联想意义即引起读者联想的意义。