Chapter 1 IntroductionTeaching objectivesTo define language and its defining features◆To distinguish the distinctive terms in linguistics◆To master functions of languageTeaching difficulties3 origins4 scholars’ viewpoints5 defining features6 distinctive terms7 functions of languageWhat is language?Sapir’s definition (1921)“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols语言是人类所独有的，用任意创造出来的符号交流思想、感情和愿望的非本能的方法。
——撒皮尔，1921Hall’s definition (1968)Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”语言是人们通过惯用的任意口头—听觉符号进行交际和互动的惯例。
——霍尔，1968Chomsky’s definition (1957)“From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentence, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”从现在起，我将语言看作是一系列（有限的或无限的）句子，每个句子的长度有限，并由有限的成分组合而成。
——乔姆斯基，1968许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbolsUsed for human communication.语言是一个用于人类交际的、具有任意性的语音符号系统。
The design/defining features (识别性特征)Arbitrariness （任意性）Productivity/Creativity（创造性）Duality （双重性）Displacement （空间移位性）Cultural transmission（文化传递）Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.语言的语音和意义之间没有逻辑关系。
考研链接☆By saying that “language is arbitrary”, we mean that there is no logical connection between meanings and ___.☆Sounds中山大学2003年考题Duality means that language is a system,which consists of two levels of structure.◆Lower level — sounds◆Higher level — the structure of words语言由两个结构组成的系统：语音，低的结构；词，高的结构。
Creativity: Language is productive in that users can understand and produce novel sentences that they have never heard before.语言具有让它的使用者生成和理解新句子的特性。
Displacement: Language can be used to refer to things that are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in faraway places.语言可用来指发生在眼前的或不在眼前的，甚至是遥远地方的，过去的，现在的，将来的，真实的或想象的事情。
Culture transmission★Human language has a genetic basis;★Human language is passed on fromgeneration to the next by teaching andlearning, rather than by gene.一方面人的语言能力具有遗传的基础；另一方面任何语言系统的细节都不是随基因传递的，必须要教和学。
Functions of languagePhatic （交感性谈话）Directive （指令功能）Informative （信息功能）Interrogative （询问功能）Expressive （表达功能）Evocative （情感功能）Performative （行事功能）☆Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.☆Directive: get the hearer to do something.☆Informative: give information about facts.☆Interrogative: get information from others.☆Expressive: express feelings and attitudes ofthe speaker.☆Evocative: create certain feelings in thehearer (amuse, startle, soothe,worry or please).☆Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.True or falseWhen language is used to get information, it serves an informative function.Answer: FIt serves an interrogative function（清华大学2001年考题）General functions (Finch, 1998)Psychological functionPhatic functionRecording functionIdentifying functionReasoning functionCommunication functionPleasure functionMetafunctions of language元语言功能Ideational function 观念功能Interpersonal function 人际功能Textual function篇章功能Halliday (1978, 1994)The origin of languageThe divine theory （神创论）The invention theory （发明论）Tahe evolution theory（进化论）•The divine-origin theory•— Language is a gift of God to mankind.•The biblical account•Language was God’s gift to human beings.•The invention theory•— imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together.•The evolutionary theory•— the result of physical and psychological development.•The bow-wow theory “汪汪”理论•Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.•The pooh-pooh theory “噗噗”理论•Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.•The yo-he-ho theory “呦—嗬—呦”理论•Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labor of effort-lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock. etc.Summary◆Defining features◆General function。