3.3Metaphors as a way of thinking
• 隐喻不再仅仅是一种语言现象，更是人类认知和构建世 界的思维方式；这种思维方式具体表现为由旧知到新知， 由已知到未知的延伸。
Байду номын сангаас
• 隐喻不仅是根据具体事物的认知模式来认识和构造对其 他事物的认知模式，而是将整个认知模式的构造，内部 关系转移。
Metaphors in science
• 隐喻将科学中的抽象概念具体化，使其更易解释和理解。 • +COMPUTER WORK IS OFFICE WORK+ (computer science) • screen is a desktop • folder • window • trash can
• +Predicate+ metaphor
• This metaphor transfers source concept (predicate means 'that which is said about the subject')from grammatical description to related disciplines like logic and artificial intelligence. • Peter is working. • the predicate is working makes a statement about the subject peter. • The familiarity and richness of the link between PREDICATE and SUBJECT makes it possible that the two concepts can act as source concepts when it comes to describing the more abstract relationship which is assumed to exist between the target concept (LOGICAL) PREDICATE and (LOGICAL) ARGUMENT in the field of logic.
Metaphors and the description of the linguistic phenomenon
• principle of family resemblance(Family metaphor)
• +The members of a category are a family+
+THE ATOM IS A (MINIATURE) SOLAR SYSTEM+
• orbit model of the atom (Bohr)
Conceptual metaphor in politics
• 在政治中，隐喻的解释功能在于控制并影响民众对其政 权领导的支持程度。 隐喻的创造在于政治家以及宣传家 的政治思维，思维的形成依赖结构隐喻。 • +THE COUNTRY IS A PERSON THAT IS ILL+ • Unemployment is a contagious disease. It infects the whole economic body.
• The family resemblance principle is powerful because FAMILY is a very rich source concept. The family concept suggests all sorts of resemblances-those concering the outward appearance of face or body, similar behaviour and similar speech habits, but it also allows for large or smaller differences between individual family members. This makes it easy to see the +FAMILY+ metaphor as a flexible alternative to a rigid definition of category membership.
隐喻的创造在于政治家以及宣传家的政治思维， 思维的形成依赖结构隐喻。
Political theorizing is also frequently based on constitutive metaphors, and since these metaphors may disguise important aspects of the issue that should have been considered, the effect may be negative and destructive.
• +VIRUS+ metaphor
• In case of +VIRUS+ what goes wrong with a computer is linked with the mysterious and invisible spread of viruses which cause an infection in the body of humans or animals. • This metaphor can satisfy the needs of average computer users, so for them these metaphor do not just fulfil an explanatory function but are constitutive for the conceptualization of computer malfunctioning. But computer scientists, only regard the +VIRUS+ metaphor as a helpful tool when confronted with lay audiences. So for them, the • +VIRUS+metaphor is just exegetic.
• For the layman, this metaphor is both explanatory and constitutive. • But for the politicians and military commanders, it is still the same? • NO! • The metaphor is not constitutive, for the concept WAR in their mind is different from what is described in the metaphor. • This metaphor hide something about the war: the reality of pain and death, the long-term health effects for the injured, the psychological effect on veterans, the environmental effect, not to mention the moral aspects of war.
• It is by virtue of this abstractness that it may in fact be difficult to find an alternative explanation for the relationship between a logical predicate and its arguments that has the same explanatory power as the information supplied by the +PREDICATE+matephor. • So we reach at a stage where the metaphor does more than just render an abstract concept more tangible; the metaphor actually seems to make up the abstract concept. • As the philosopher Boyd has put it, we arrive at a point where metaphors are 'constitutive of the theories they express rather than merely exegetical'(Boyd 1993:486)
Conclude this discussion of explanatory and constitutive metaphor
概念隐喻影响思维的两种方式：
解释性隐喻（explanatory metaphor):是外行更容易理 解复杂的科学，政治和社会问题。 结构性隐喻（constitutive metaphor):对复杂问题及概 念做理论阐述的必要工具，让人们根据已知概念构建一 个新的概念，也就是说一个概念是以另一个概念为基础 产生的。
3.4 Thinking in metonymies
Metonymy and word-formation
• Compund: skinhead(光头青年；有暴力和攻击倾向的青年人） • paperback（平装书） • +SALIENT FEATURE FOR PERSON/OBJECT+
• Metonymy is also responsible for another linguistic process “word-formation”: the process of conversion • The largest group among them are noun-verb conversions like author(a book), ski (down a hill） • +PARTICIPANTS FOR ACTION/EVENT+