摘要
实务中有不少涉外经济合同纠纷是因各方对合同文字的理解不一而引起的,究其原因,主要是起草者对合同语言的特殊性缺乏应有的了解,结果导致合同语言的模糊性和不确定性。本文从词法、句法及应用等三个层面对英文经贸合同语言的特殊性及其变化规律进行探讨,以期能有助于对此类合同的阅读和起草。
关键词：涉外合同；语言特征；阅读和起草
ABSTRACT
In practice, the occurrence of inconsistency in interpretation of the contract English has resulted in a good few cases of disputes. In essence, it is largely due to the draftsman's failure to have a deep-in understanding of the underlying features of the contract language, which might lead to the ambiguities and uncertainties of the contract wording. This paper tries to analyze the linguistic features of English business contracts at the morphological, syntactical and discourse levels respectively with a view to rendering a help in the reading and drafting the contracts.
Keywords：contract English ; language features; reading anddrafting
Contents
1. Introduction (1)
2. Literature review (2)
2.1 Study of contract (2)
2.2 Study of legal English (3)
2.3 Study of contract English (3)
2.4 The study of the stylistic features of contract English in China (4)
3. The language features of contract English (6)
3.1 The lexical features (6)
3.1.1 Formal words (6)
3.1.2 Archaic Words (7)
3.1.3 Synonyms (8)
3.1.4 Abbreviations (8)
3.2 The syntax features (9)
3.2.1 Active voice (9)
3.2.2 Present tense (10)
3.2.3 Shall+verb (10)
3.3 The sentential features (11)
3.3.1 Declarative sentences (11)
3.3.2 Long sentences (12)
3.3.3 Conditional clauses (13)
4. Implications (15)
4.1 Implication for reading contract English (15)
4.2 Implication for drafting contract (16)
5. Conclusion (17)
Acknowledgements (18)
References (19)
1. Introduction
Language is much more than merely a means of communication. It is also a way of signaling, consciously or unconsciously, that we come from a particular area, or belong to a certain social group.[1]51 Every field of expertise develops its own language features.[2]36 The language of English used in contracts, or contract English, is an important branch of legal English. Legal English means the language of the law of England, America, and some other countries whose official language is English. These common law system countries have a history about several hundred years to express law in English. Legal English is a type of legal language with overlap of linguistics and the science of law. [3]6
With China's carrying out the policy to promote reform and opening to the outside world, the establishment of market economy, the rapid development of our communication with foreign countries and China's entry to the WTO, there are more and more opportunities for us to communicate with those countries whose official language is English. When communicating with individuals, legal persons or other organizations from the English speaking countries, we often need to sign English contracts with them. Contract plays an important role in international economic and trade activities, as all achievements thereof will be finally embodied in it.
How to correctly draft and understand contract language is of great importance to individuals and business organizations. There are a few books and papers dedicated to general principles of stylistic features of English for law, but none addresses questions of contract English in sufficient detail to be of significant practical use to the English contract learners in China. My dissertation attempts to present a comparatively detailed analysis of stylistic features of contract English with the expectation to better help contract learners or businessmen understand and draft English contract.
2. Literature review
2.1 Study of contract
Contract English, like English as a whole, is not static. It has undergone and is still undergoing enormous changes. The definition of contracts given by Karla C. Shippey[4]155: A Commercial Contract, in simplest terms, is merely an agreement made by two or more parties for the purpose of transacting business. In the eye of scholars the word contract is used in common speech, which simply refers to a writing containing terms on which the parties have agreed. Contract is often used in a more technical sense to mean "a promise, or a set of promises for the breach of which the law gives a remedy, or the performance of which the law in some way recognizes a duty." Put quite simply, a contract is an agreement which the courts will enforce. [5]5
A contract, in the simplest definition, is a promise enforceable by law. The promise may be to do something or to refrain from doing something. The making of a contract requires the mutual assent of two or more persons, one of them ordinarily making an offer and another accepting. If one of the parties fails to keep the promise, the other is entitled to legal recourse against him. The law of contracts has to do with such questions as whether a contract exists, what the meaning of it is, whether a contract has been broken, and what compensation is due the injured party.[6]6 Many contracts use the word agreement in the title. In some contexts the two words, contract and agreement, are synonyms and can be used interchangeably.
While contract and agreement may both be used to mean a formal and legally enforceable arrangement, agreement may also refer to an informal arrangement not supported by consideration, such as an agreement between friends to play tennis on Saturday morning. So an agreement is really the main ingredient of a contract. But it is not every agreement that becomes a contract. To be a contract, that agreement must be enforceable in taw.
2.2 Study of legal English
When we move into the domain of legal English, we must consider another continuum, the so-called general English. What precisely is general English is difficult to define. The concept is often left unspecified and regarded as an implicit norm, apparently based on intuitive knowledge of what is common use.[7]12Special English, of which legal English is one example, is often understood as being in some significant respects deviant from general English.That's to say, legal English is based on the general English with its own stylistic features.
More recently, some linguists have begun to analyze certain language varieties in terms of sublanguages. One definition of this term is a "language used in a body of texts dealing with a circumscribed subject area in which the authors of the documents share a common vocabulary and common habits of word usage，The term carries with it the idea that the sublanguage is a subset, or part, of the language as a whole. Some characteristics that have been attributed to sublanguages include: they have a limited subject matter; (2) they contain lexical, syntactic, and semantic restrictions; (3) they allow "deviant" rules of grammar that are not
acceptable in the standard language; and (4) certain constructions are unusually frequent.[1]142-143Most of these features seem to apply to legal English so we can also say that legal English is a sublanguage of English.
2.3 Study of contract English
Generally speaking, contract English is an important branch of legal English, which is the language of the contract of England, America, and some other countries whose official language is English.
Since English is universally accepted as a commercial language, it is a usual practice in our foreign trade to conclude contracts in both English and Chinese languages; that is first to draft a contract in one language and then to render it into the other. There are a number of worthwhile guides to forensic linguistics in general, given their broad scope they are of great help to the English contract learners. Lord Mansfield[8]3, one of the most famous English judges, once observed that "most of the disputes in the world arise from words". He told us the significance of language. If one can command contract English quite well, it may be easier for him to read the English contract. It is highly possible that he could study and understand English contracts better than those who know little about contract English. A contract refers to an agreement establishing, modifying and terminating the civil rights and obligations between subjects of equal footing. The language for contract is different from that for basic English or literature. In the Five Clocks, the American linguist Martin Joos[9]36advances the five stylistic varieties in English: the Frozen Style, the Formal Style, the Consultative Style, the Casual Style and the Intimate Style. The style of Contract English can be considered as the first one, which is the Frozen Style because the language habits of the profession cause lawyers (contract drafters) to frequently choose one means of expression over other possibilities. There are a few books and papers dedicated to general principles of stylistic features of English for law, such as the field's main journal,
Forensic Linguistics[8], books as Investigating English Style written by David Crystal[10] , The Elements of Legal Style written by Bryan, A. Garner[11], so on and so forth.
2.4 The study of the stylistic features of contract English in China
For many years, the study of the stylistic features of contract English is limited. In our country, there are few books or articles talking about the language of contract. However,with China's carrying out the policy to promote reform and opening to the outside world and China's entry the WTO, there are more and more opportunities for us to communicate with those countries whose official language is English. When communicating with people or other organizations from the English speaking countries, we often need to sign English contracts with them. English contracts are becoming more and more important in our daily life. And people began to do more study on contract English.The language of contracts is not easy to understand. Wu Weiping [12] points out, “Most people know it difficult reading legal documents(in a narrow sense). In fact non-legal documents like contracts, trade brands are also difficult to read.”Due to the importance of contracts and difficulty of contractual language, more and more people have been turning their attention to them. Many school students, especially those majoring in business English are learning English of contracts and at the same time many scholars take profound interest in the study it. Many books and articl es are published and provide assistance in students’learning of the variety of English. Chen Jingying[13] describes the syntax features of the contract English. Hu Genshen[14]points out that many Latinate words are adopted in every possible case to replace synonyms of ordinary English to display formality and preciseness. Besides, Liao Yin[6]says that in business contracts, complicated prepositional phrases are often used insteadof ordinary ones. For example, the participants in the joint ventures shall commence discussion with regard to the
第四章 为在平等互利的基础上发展贸易，有关方按下列条件签订本协议：This Agreement is entered into between the parties concerned on the basis of equality and mutual benefit to develop business on terms and conditions mutually agreed upon as follows: 1. 订约人Contracting Parties 供货人（以下称甲方）：销售代理人（以下称乙方）： 甲方委托乙方为销售代理人，推销下列商品。 Supplier: （hereinafter called “party A”） Agent:（hereinafter called “party B”） Party A hereby appoint Party B to act as his selling agent to sell the commodity mentioned below. 2. Commodity and Quantity: Party A hereby appoints Party B as its Sole Agent for the sale of …Party B shall undertake to sell the aforesaid commodity not less than 1,000,000m/tons in the duration of this agreement. 甲方委任乙方为某商品的独家销售代理人…乙方保证在协议期间销售上述商品不少于1000000吨。 3.经销地区Territory 只限在.....。In ... only. 4. Confirmation of Orders：The quantities, prices and dates of shipments of the shipment concerning the commodities stated in this Agreement shall be confirmed in each transaction, the particulars of which will be shown in Party A’s S/C. 协议商品的有关数量、价格和装船期，应在逐笔交易中确认，其细节详见甲方销货确认书。 5. 付款Payment
涉外商务英语合同的语言特色体现在以下几个方面： 第一部分、用词方面 多用正式或法律上的用词，与口头表述不同，合同是法律性的正式书面文件，使用正式的、法律的用词是必要的。合同起草者应多加强这方面的学习。比如： 1、At the request of Party B, Party A agrees to send technicians to assist Party B to install the equipment. 应乙方要求，甲方同意派遣技术人员帮助乙方安装设备。assist 较help 正式； 2、The personnel shall not to partake in any political activities in Iraq. 所有人员不得参加伊拉克国内的任何政治活动。partake in 较take part in 正式； 3、The Employer shall render correct technical guidance to the personnel. 雇主应该对有关人员给予正确技术指导。render 较give 正式； 4、Party A shall repatriate the patient to China and bear the cost of his passage to Guangzhou. 甲方应将病人遣返中国并负责其返回广州的旅费。repatriate 较send back 正式； 5、This Contract shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of China. 本合同受中国法律管辖，并按中国法律解释。construe 较explain，interpret 正式； 6、The Employer may object to and require the Contractor to replace forthwith any of its authorized representatives who is incompetent. 雇主认为承包人委派的授权代表不合格时，可以反对并要求立即撤换。require较ask正式；公文体forthwith 较at once 正式； 7、The Chairperson may convene an interim meeting based on a proposal made by one-third of the total number of directors. 董事长可以根据董事会过1/3董事的提议而召集临时董事会议。convene，interim 都是正式用词。 8、In case one party desires to sell or assign all or part of its investment subscribed, the other party shall have the preemptive right. 如一方想出售或转让其投资之全部或部分，另一方有优先购买权。法律用词assign 较
制式合同范本范文 发包人： 设计人： 发包人委托设计人承担工程 设计，经双方协商一致，签订本合同。 第一条本合同依据下列文件签订： 1.1《中华人民 __合同法》、《中华人民 __建筑法》、《建 设工程勘察设计市场管理规定》。 1.2国家及地方有关建设工程勘察设计管理法规和规章。 1.3建筑工程批准文件。 第二条本合同设计项目的内容： 2.1工程名称：
2.2工程规模： 2.3设计阶段及设计内容： 。 2.4本项目设计收费标准：。 第三条发包人应向设计人提交有关资料及文件： 第四条设计人应向发包人交付的设计资料及文件： 第五条本合同设计收费见《特别约定》。 第六条双方责任： 6.1发包人责任： 6.1.1发包人按本合同第三条规定的内容，在规定的时间内向设计人提交资料及文件，并对其提供的资料及文件的完整性、正确性及时限负责，发包人不得要求设计人违 __有关标准进行设计。
发包人提交上述资料及文件超过规定期限15天以内，设计人按合同第四条规定交付设计文件时间顺延；超过规定期限15天以 上时，设计人有权重新确定提交设计文件的时间。_制式合同范本。 6.1.2 发包人变更委托设计项目、规模、条件或因提交的资料错误，或所提交资料作较大修改，以致造成设计人的设计需返工时，双方除需另行协商签订补充协议（或另订合同）、重新明确有关条款外，发包人应按设计人所耗工作量向设计人支付设计费。 在未签订合同前发包人已同意，设计人为发包人所做的各项设计工作，应按收费标准，相应支付设计费。 6.1.3 发包人要求设计人比合同规定时间提前交付设计文件时，如果设计人能够做到，发包人应根据设计人提前投入的工作量，向设计人支付赶工费。 6.1.4 发包人应为派赴现场处理有关设计问题的工作人员，提供必要的工作生活及交通灯方便条件。
英语合同的特点(2) 英语合同的用词特点(Formal term) 合同英语的用词极其考究，具有特定性。要求选词专业化（professional）、正式（formal）、准确（aurate）。具体体现在下列方面： 1、May, shall, must ,may not (或shall not) 的使用 May, shall , must ,may not (或shall not)对学过英语的人再熟悉不过，但在合同中用这些词时要极其谨慎。权利义务的约见定部分构成了合同的主体。这几个词如选用不当，可能会引起纠纷。 may 旨在约定当事人的权利（可以做什么），Shall约定当事人的义务（应当做什么时候）， must 用于强制性义务（必须做什么），may not (或shall not)用于禁止性义务（不得做什么）。May do __成can do shall do， __成should do 或ought to do，may not do 在美国一些法律文件可以用shall not，但绝不能用can not do或must not ) 例如，在约定解决争议的途径时的，可以说：
The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract by friendly negotiations. Should such negotiations fail, such dispute may be referred to the People's Court having jurisdiction on such dispute for settlement in the absence of any arbitration clause in the disputed contract or in default of agreement reached after such dispute ours. 本句中的shall 和may表达准确。出现争议后应当先行协商，所以采用了义务性“约定”，如果协商解决不了，作为当事人的权利，用选择性约定may也很妥当。如果may和shall 调换位置会怎么样？前半句的shall换用may后，意思变成了当事人可以通过协商解决，意思上说得过去，但后半句的may换用shall 后，变成了应当诉讼解决，好象一出事，就要先见官，这就有些不友好了。 本句可译：双方首先应通过友好协商，解决因合同而发生的或与合同有关的争议。如果协商未果，合同中又无仲裁条款约定或争议发生后未就仲裁达成协方的，可将争议提交有管辖权的 __解决。 2、正式用语（formal term） 合同英语有着严肃的风格，与其它英语作品有很大不同。
P-10 This Sales Contract is made by and between the Sellers and Buyers whereby the Sellers agree to sell and the Buyers agree to buy the under-mentioned goods according to the terms and conditions stipulated below: （兹经买卖双方同意由卖方出售买方购进下列货物，并按下列条款签订本合同：） (The Sellers are allowed to load 5% more or less and the price shall be calculated according to the unit price.)（卖方可多装或少装5%，价格仍按上述单价计算） 3.Insurance: To be covered by the Sellers for 110% of the invoice value against All Risks & War Risk as per the relevant O cean Marine Cargo Clauses of the People’s Insurance Company of China. If other coverage or an additional amount is required, the Buyers must have the consent of the Sellers before shipment, and the additional premium is to be borne by the Buyers. 保险：由卖方按中国人民保险公司海运输货物条款照发票金额总值110%投保一切险及战争险。如买方欲增加其他险别或超过上述保额时须于装船前征得卖方同意，所增加的保险费由买方负担。 7.Terms and Payment: The Buyers shall open with a bank acceptable to the Sellers an Irrevocable Sight Letter of Credit to reach the Sellers 30 days before the month of shipment, valid for negotiation in China until the 15th day after the month of shipment. 付款条件：买方应由卖方可接受的银行于装运月份前30天开立并送达卖方不可撤销的即期信用证，至装运月份后第15天在中国议付有效. 8. Commodity Inspection: It is mutually agreed that certificate of Quality and Weight issued by the Chinese Import and Export Commodity Inspection Bureau at the port of shipment shall be taken as the basis of delivery. 商品检验：买卖双方同意以装运口岸中国进出口商品检验局签发的品质和重量检验证书作为品质和数量的交货依据. 9.异议和索赔：买方对于装运货物的任何索赔，必须于货到目的港后30天内提出，并须提供经卖方同意的公证机构出具的检验报告，属于保险公司或轮船公司责任范围的索赔，卖方不予受理. Discrepancy and Claim: Any claim by the Buyers on the goods shipped shall be filed within 30 days after the arrival of the goods at port of destination and supported by a survey report issued by a public surveyor approved by the Sellers. Claims in respect of matters within the responsibility of the insurance company or of the shipping company will not be considered or entertained by the Sellers. 10不可抗力：如由于不可抗力的原因，致使卖方不能全部或者部分装运或延迟装运合同货物时，卖方对于这种不能装运或延迟装运不负有责任。但卖方须用传真或电传通知买方，并须在15天以内以航空挂号信件向买方提交事故发生地权威机构出具的证明此类事故的证明书。 Force majeure: If shipment of the contracted goods is prevented or delayed in whole or in part due to Force majeure, the Sellers shall not be liable for non-shipment or late shipment of the goods under this contract. However, the sellers shall notify the buyers by fax or telex and furnish the later within 15 days by registered airmail with a certificate issued by the competent authorities at the place of occurrence attesting such event or events. 11.仲裁:凡因执行本合同所发生的或于本合同有关的一切争议，双方应通过友好协商解决。如果协商不能解决时，应提交北京中国国际贸易促进委员会对外经济贸易仲裁委员会根据该会仲裁程序暂行规则进行仲裁。仲裁是终局性的，对双方都有约束力。
编号：_______________本资料为word版本，可以直接编辑和打印，感谢您的下载 英语合同的特点和翻译 甲方：___________________ 乙方：___________________ 日期：___________________
一.用词特点与翻译要点 合同英语的用词极其考究，具有特定性1.要求选词专业化（professional）,正式（formal）. 准确（accurate）.具体体现在下列方面： 1, may, shall, must, may not （或shall not）的使用 may旨在约定当事人的权利（可以做什么），shall约定当事人的义务（应当做什么时候）， must用于强制性义务（必须做什么），may not（或shall not）用于禁止性义务（不得做什么）。May not do在美国一些法律文件可以用shall not,但绝不能用can not do或must not，但 may do不能。 2, 用语正式（formal） 合同英语有着严肃的风格，如"因为"的短语多用" by virtue of ",远远多于"due to" 一般不用a because of;" 财务年度末 "一般用"at the close of the fiscal year",而不用"in the end of the fiscal year";"在之前"一 般用 ................... "prior to ",而不用"before"; 关于 "常用" as regards’, concerning '或"relating to ",而不会用"about";"事实上" 用"in effect",而不用"in fact":"开始" 用 "commencement",而不用"start"或"begin";"停止做" 用"cease to do",而不用"stop to do";何时开会并由某 某主持"的表述为：The meeting shall be convened and presided by sb. 其中"召开" 不用"hold 或call",而用"convene";"主持’不用"chair" 或"be in charge of "而用"preside";"其他事项" 用"miscellaneous",而不用"other matters/events"; 理解合同"用"construe a contract"或"comprehend a contract"或"comprehend a contract",而不用"understand a contract";"认为"用"deem",用"consider"少，不用”think”或"believe". 3, 用词专业（technical） 合同用词不以大众是否理解和接受为转移，它是合同语言准确表达的保障。如合同出现的” 瑕疵”，”救济“，“不可抗力”，“管辖”，“毁损”，“失业”等就可能让非行业人士费 解，在英语以上表达分另U为defect ,remedy, force 马绝热，jurisdiction , damage and/or loss。 另夕卜几乎每个合同者E 少不了hereinafter referred to as, whereas, in witness whereof, for and on behalf of, hereby,用"compensation"; 不动产转让 " 用"conveyance",而不用"transfer of real estate";"房屋出租"用"tendency",而"财产出租"用"lease of property";"停止"用"wind up a business" 或"cease （名词是cessation） a business,而不用"end/stop a business"; 依照合同相关规定“或一般说"pursuant to provisions contained herein"或"as provided herein" 等，不说'according to relevant terms and conditions in the contract ”。 4, 同义词，近义词，相关词的并列使用 英文合同出于严谨和杜绝漏洞的考虑，made and entered into", by and between", for and in consideration of", covenants and agreements", 6n the terms and subject to the conditions" terms and conditions" "release and discharge' 5, 古英语与外来词的应用（borrowing words） 使用古英语最为突出的是较多使用here, there, where加后缀in, by after, from 等介词构成的 词。在法律文件中用这些词，可以避免重复，避免歧义，使行文准确，简洁。常用例词 如下: hereafter, hereby, herein, hereof, hereto, hereunder, hereupon, herewith, hereinbefore, hereinafter, thereafter, thereby, therein, thereinafter, thereinbefore, thereon, thereof, thereunder, thereupon, therewith, whereas, whereby, wherein, whereof, whereon, etc. 合同中也会使用一些外来词汇，常用的有拉丁语和法语词汇。如比例税率：用pro rate tax rate要比proportional tax rate多；从事慈善性服务的律师：pro bono lawyer,不经常用lawyer engaged in charitable legal assistance, 委托代理人多用agent ad litem
合同的写作格式 篇一：合同撰写格式要求 合同撰写基本格式 一、页面规格与编码 1、页面设置 页边距为上下厘米、左右3厘米，标准字符间距，行间距为多倍。 2、页码编辑 封皮无页码。正文开始设置页码，页码起始数字为1，形式为普通阿拉伯数字，置于页面底端居中。 二、字体与字号 1、封面部分 封面包括合同编号、合同名称、合同当事人、签约时间、签约地点等。 （1）合同编号部分“集团范XX”与“编号XX”，为黑体，四号，文本左对齐； （2）空两行书写合同名称，仿宋字体，一号，加粗，居中； （3）空7-8行，余下内容（当事人、合同签订时间、签订地点等）用三号楷 体字，与合同名称居中对齐。 2、主体部分
（1）段前空一行书写合同名称，黑体，二号，居中，段前段后各24磅； （2）下书双方当事人双方基本信息，黑体，小三号，文本左对齐； （3）合同正文文本为宋体，小四号，首行缩进2字符，行距为多倍行距； 3、表格与说明 （1）每张表格均应有表题，表题前后各空一行，采用宋体，小四号，加粗， 置于表格上方居中位置； （2）表格中文字为宋体5号，居中； （3）在表格正下方空一行书写表格说明，采用宋体，五号； （4）同一表格应尽量放在一页。 4、结尾与落款 （1）合同正文结束后，空两行，书写“（以下无正文）”字样，采用宋体，小 四号，首行缩进两字符。 （2）依据合同具体情况书写落款，采用宋体，小四号字，分别在页面两侧为 双方当事人预留出大致相等的签字（盖章）空间。 5、附件、附录
合同结尾处需要加附件、附录的，应另起一页。 （1）附件起始页书写“合同附件”，上下各空一行，采用仿宋字体，二号，加 粗，居中。 （2）附件、附录需编号，形式为“附件/附录+阿拉伯数字”例：“附件1”、“附 件2”、“附录1”。附件编号采用仿宋体，三号，加粗，文本左对齐。 （3）附件、附录标题为宋体，小三号，加粗，置于附件文本/表格上方正中位置。 三、条款分层 合同条款序号分级最多为四层，如需编号应按照以下顺序 （1）第一层“1.”、“2.” （2）第二层“”、“” （3）第三层“”、“” （4）第四层“”、“” 四层以下仍有分级编号必要的，应依次使用序号：（1）（2）（3） 四、目录设置 1、目录置于封皮下一页，需显示到三级标题，且应为word自动生成目录格式，以便使用超链接功能。
EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT Contract No.: Employer (Party A): Employee (Party B): This Employment Contract is made and entered into on the day of______ , ______by and between______ (hereinafter referred to as“Party A”) and ______ (hereinafter referred to a s“ Party B”). 1. Obligations of T wo Parties Party A hereby employs Party B and Party B hereby accepts to be employed by Party A to serve and perform the duties required of him in the job category provided below: (1) ______ (2) ______ (3) ______ … 2. Service Period The term of this Contract shall be for the period of______, commencing upon ______, ______and ending on ______, ______. 3. Working Hours and Working Days Party B’s work days, hours and workweek shall be______ to ______, from ______ to______ , for a total______ hours per week. 4. Salary
对外经贸英语合同写作 第七章商品包装条款 商品包装是使用适当的材料、容器对商品进行包封、捆扎和装演的活动，具有维护商品质量、保证商品安全、便于储运和装卸、便于计量和点验商品、节省物流和降低物流成本等项职能。在商品贸易中，除少数商品不需要包装，可直接采用散装(bulk cargo,cargo in bulk）、裸装((Nude cargo)形式运输、储存外，绝大多数都需要包装。商品包装是使用适当的材料、容器对商品进行包封、捆扎和装演的活动，具有维护商品质量、保证商品安全、便于储运和装卸、便于计量和点验商品、节省物流和降低物流成本等项职能。在商品贸易中，除少数商品不需要包装，可直接采用散装、裸装形式运输、储存外，绝大多数都需要包装。包装条款（Packing Clause）一般包括包装材料（Packing materials）、包装方式（Packing style）、包装规格（Packing description）、包装标志和包装费用的负担等内容。 包装为达到坚固与耐抗的目的，应符合下列要求①减少漏损(Minimixe the leakage ＆breakage)、②耐抗各种气候(Resist the various climate condition)、③防止偷窃(Protect theft ＆piferage)。 避免出现“包装不良”(Insufficient packing) 一、包装的种类 （一）运输包装（packingfor shipment) 运输包装，又称外包装（outer packing )或大包装(big packing)。主要是用于保护商品，防止货损或货差，便于装卸搬运。运输包装分为单件运输包装和集合运输包装两类。 1.单件运输包装(single packing for shipment) 单件运输包装是指货物在运输过程中作为一个计件单位的包装。按其包装造型的不同，可分为以下几种： 1）箱装。 主要有纸箱包装、木箱包装、塑料箱包装等。箱内一般还衬用防潮纸或塑料薄膜，有时还村有锌箔( Zinclined）或锡箔(Tinlined) 。箱外通常加打包装条或塑料带。 ①箱(Case, box) c/-,c/s, bx, bxs, wooden case ②crate(crs,crts) 板条箱，柳条箱/格子箱，漏孔箱（skeleton case) ③chest(cst, csts) 茶箱 ④carton(crt,crts) 纸箱 2）捆（bale) 3) 袋装(bag) 布袋(sack，sx,sxs)、麻袋(gunny bag)、纸袋(paper bag)、塑料袋(polybag)、塑料编织袋(Plastic woven bag )、纸塑复合袋(paper plastic compound bag) 、多层塑复合袋(multi-layer composite plastic bags)等。 4)桶装(barrel)
看了之后明白了很多英文“之乎者也”所对应的现代文，对合同英语的结构和特色也有了大概的了解。值得一看。 Contract 与Agreement的有无区别 在英语中，合同一般称为Contract，协议一般称为Agreement. 何谓“contract”？ 1999年中国《合同法》第二条对contract定义为：A contact in this Law refers to an agreement establishing，modifying and terminating the civil rights and obligations between subjects of equal footing，that is，between natural persons，legal persons or other organizations“。根据这一定义，合同平等主体之间设立的确定民事权利和义务的协议。 Steven H. Gifts编著的“Law Dictionary”中将contract 定义为“contract is a promise，or a set of promises，for breach of which the law gives remedy，or the performance of the which the law in some way recognize as a duty.”根据这一定义，合同是一种承诺，违反承诺可以得到法律救助，某种意义上法律将履行该承诺看做是一种补偿。 L.B Curzon 在其编撰的字典“A Dictionary of Law”给contract的定义：“Contract is a legally binding agreement”根据这一定义，合同就是有法律约束力的协议。 (来源：英语学习门户网站) 综合起来，有一个相同点，就是“Contract is an agreement”，即可将合同说成是“An agreement which binds the parties concerned”或者说合同说成是“An agreement which is enforceable by law”，也可以说：Contracts are promises that the law will enforce. ， 何谓“Agreement”？， L.B “A consensus of mind，or evidence of such consensus，in spoke or written form，relating to anything done or to be done.” 根据这一定义，协议是对已经做或准备做的相关事宜，经过谈判、协商后取得一致意见，以口头或书面形式做出的约定。 Black "Law Dictionary"有两个定义。一个是：“A concord of understanding and intention between two or more parties with respect to the effect upon their relative rights and duties，of certain past or future facts or performance”根据这一定义，协议即双方或多方京某些过去或将来某些事实的相关权利、义务或相关权利、义务的履行而达成的一致理解和愿望。 另一个是：“The consent of two or more persons concurring respecting the transmission of some property，right or benefits，with the view of contacting an obligation，a mutual obligation.”根据这一定义，协议即两个或多个当事人，为了约定单方责任或相互责任，就财产权利、利益的转移取得的一致同意。(来源：专业英语学习网站)
1.abstract art : 抽象派艺术 2.abstract expressionism : 抽象表现 派；抽象表现主义 3.action painting : 动作画派 4.airbrush : 喷枪；气笔 5.art deco： 装饰派艺术 6.art nouveau： 新艺术 7.avent-garde : 先锋派 8.Baroque： xx风格 9.batik： 蜡防印花 10.Bauhaus： xx建筑风格
12.calligraphy书法艺术 13.cartoon草图，底图 14.ceramics 15.collage： 拼贴艺术 艺术作品 18.cubism： 立方主义；xx 19.Dada： 达达主义 20.drawing： 素描 21.expressionism： 表现主义 22.fresco： xx壁画技法；湿壁画23.funk art： 非理性艺术；恶臭艺术24.futurism： 未来主义
25.genre： 风俗画 26.Gothic： xx风格 27.gouache： 树胶水彩颜料 28. graphic arts： 平面造型艺术 29.hard-edge： 锋刃派绘画的；硬边画的 30.history painting：历史题材的绘画31.hyperrealism： 高度写实主义 32.impressionism：印象主义，xx 33.Kakemono： 画轴 活动艺术 ndscape：
风景画，山水画36.medium： 溶剂，调色剂，材料37.Ming： 具有明代艺术特色的37.minimal art： 极简抽象艺术；最小主义艺术 38.modernism： 现代主义 39.mosaic： xx；镶嵌工艺，镶嵌40.mural： 壁画；壁饰 41.neoclassicism： 新古典主义 42.new wave： 新浪潮 43.nude： 裸体画，裸体像44.oil paint：
买卖合同怎么写 本文是关于范文的买卖合同怎么写，感谢您的阅读！ 买卖合同怎么写 买卖合同大都采用书面形式签订，目前使用的合同文本格式有示范合同文本格式、专业合同文本格式、企业自拟合同文本格式。买卖合同的文本模式即合同的书面格式，一般分为首部、正文、尾部三部分。 一、首部 1.标题：直接表明合同的性质，如《工矿产品买卖合同》、《农副产品买卖合同》等。 2.合同的编号：如“合字第XX号”. 3.签订地点：如“XX市XX会议厅”（也可放在尾部）。 4.签订时间：写明“X X年X月X日”（也可放在尾部）。 5.当事人的名称或者姓名住所：单位名称要写全称，后加圆括号，分别写“以下简称甲方”、“以下简称乙方”.如属中间商，还必须写明实际买主的姓名。以上2、3、4、5条款的排列，有两种方式：一种是在标题下排成两竖行，第5款当事人摆在左边，2、3、4款排在右边；另一种是在标题下排成一竖行，其次序是合同编号、项目名称（标题）、双方当事人、签约地点、签约时间。 6.合同序言：用一两句话，简要概述签订合同的依据和目的，如“依据X 月X日去电，XX公司（以下简称甲方）向XX公司（以下简称乙方）就XX项目XX技术转让事宜，经双方共同协商达成一致意见”,以“现制定合同如下”作过渡。是否写，根据合同内容需要而定。 二、正文 1.标的标的是合同当事人权利义务共同指向的对象，是合同中非常重要的条款，必须具体明确且具各可操作性。如买卖合同房屋中标的是房屋，在合同中应写清楚房屋的建筑面积、所在位置、图纸情况等基本内容，必要时可通过附件说明标的的实际情况。标的物必须合法有效，如违法则合同无效。如呛支买卖合同、黄金买卖合同均是无效合同。 2.产品的数量数量条款是买卖合同的最核心、最基本条款。包括数额和计量单位，计量单位要用国家法定的计量单位。在国际买卖合同中要视具体情况，从国际上通用的公制、英制、美制等三种不同的计量单位中明确选定一种计量单位。在实践中常用以下几种方法：
英文合同中的重点提示 （一）Contract 与 Agreement的区别 在英语中，合同一般称为Contract，协议一般称为Agreement. 1.何谓“contract”？ xx年中国《合同法》第二条对contract定义为： A contact in this Law refers to an agreement establishing， modifying and terminating the civil rights and obligations between subjects of equal footing， that is， between natural persons， legal persons or other organizations“。根据这一定义，合同是平等主体之间设立的确定民事权利和义务的协议。 Steven H.Gifts编著的“Law Dictionary”中将contract 定义为“contract is a promise， or a set of promises， for breach of which the law gives remedy，or the performance of the which the law in some way recognize as a duty.”根据这一定义，合同是一种承诺，违反承诺可以得到法律救助，某种意义上法律将履行该承诺看做是一种补偿。
L.B Curzon 在其编撰的字典“A Dictionary of Law”给contract的定义：“Contract is a legally binding agreement”根据这一定义，合同就是有法律约束力的协议。 综合起来，有一个相同点，就是“Contract is an agreement”，即可将合同说成是“An agreement which binds the parties concerned”或者说合同说成是“An agreement which is enforceable by law”，也可以说：Contracts are promises that the law will enforce. 2.何谓“Agreement”？ L.B “A consensus of mind， or evidence of such consensus， in spoke or written form， relating to anything done or to be done.”根据这一定义，协议是对已经做或准备做的相关事宜，经过谈判、协商后取得一致意见，以口头或书面形式做出的约定。 Black “Law Dictionary”有两个定义。一个是：“A concord of understanding and intention between two or more parties with respect to the effect upon their relative rights and duties， of certain past or future facts or performance”根据这一定义，协议即双方或多方京某些过去或将来某些事实的相关权利、义务或相关权利、义务的履行而达成的一致理解和愿望。
合同与合同英语教学大纲 一、课程名称：合同与合同英语 二、教学目的与教学要求： 本课程以课文教学为主，辅以适量的事例和案例研究与讨论，重点在于向学生介绍国际商业交易合同、行业术语、不同合同的基本条款等，使学生能够用较清晰的文字翻译简单的中英文合同。通过学习，学生应该重点掌握国际贸易合同的内容、用词特点、文体特色，并能掌握一些中英文合同翻译的基本策略和技巧。更高层次的目标是要是学生能够独立起草和翻译规范的合同文本，为从事外贸及涉外业务打下良好的基础。 三、课程必备知识： 先修课程：商务英语、国际贸易、国际贸易实务、外贸英语函电等课程 四、学时：34 五、学分：2 六、课程性质：选修课 七、使用教材与教材内容简介： 《合同与合同英语》，戚云方著，浙江大学出版社，2004年8月出版。 第一章概论Introductory 第二章合同Contract 第一节合同的含义(Concept of Contract) 第二节合同的内容(Contents of Contract) 第三节合同的条件(Basics of Contract) 第四节合同的分类(Classification of Contract) 第五节合同的结构(Structure of Contract) 第三章合同的起草Drafting a Contract 第一节注意事项(Some Hints in Drafting) 第二节起草合同(How to Draft) 第三节合同当事人(Parties Concerned) 第四节合同签订的日期与地点(Signing Date and Address 第五节合同语言(Contract Language)